Life Cycle–based Assessment of Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Almond Production, Part I: Analytical Framework and Baseline Results

Kendall, Alissa; Marvinney, Elias; Brodt, Sonja; Zhu, Weiyuan

doi:10.1111/jiec.12332

Cited by 48 publications

(32 citation statements)

References 17 publications

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“…Almond cultivation is modeled based on an updated version of an existing almond LCA model (Kendall et al 2015;Marvinney et al 2015). The updates of importance include changes to irrigation energy requirements for pumping surface water and groundwater that reflect improved modeling techniques and the effects of California's recent drought and updated life cycle inventory (LCI) datasets from the GaBi databases (service pack 32) (Thinkstep 2017) and Ecoinvent databases (Wernet et al 2016).…”

Section: System Definition and System Boundariesmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The almond production model includes spatial modeling for groundwater depth and other spatially dependent factors that affect the energy, water, and resource demands of almond production. The model is an update to the one described in Kendall et al (2015). Annual crop production practices are based on the University of California Cost-and-Return studies, including typical nutrient, pesticide, fuel, and water use, as well as monthly in-field operations such as tractor use (Yaghmour et al 2016).…”

Section: Almond Productionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Life cycle assessment of California unsweetened almond milk

Winans

Macadam-Somer

Kendall

et al. 2019

Int J Life Cycle Assess

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Purpose Plant-based alternatives to dairy milk have grown in popularity over the last decade. Almond milk comprises the largest share of plant-based milk in the US market and, as with so many food products, stakeholders in the supply chain are increasingly interested in understanding the environmental impacts of its production, particularly its carbon footprint and water consumption. This study undertakes a life cycle assessment (LCA) of a California unsweetened almond milk. Methods The scope of this LCA includes the production of almond milk in primary packaging at the factory gate. California produces all US almonds, which are grown under irrigated conditions. Spatially resolved modeling of almond cultivation and primary data collection from one almond milk supply chain were used to develop the LCA model. While the environmental indicators of greatest interest are global warming potential (GWP) and freshwater consumption (FWC), additional impact categories from US EPA's TRACI assessment method are also calculated. Co-products are accounted for using economic allocation, but massbased allocation and displacement are also tested to understand the effect of co-product allocation choices on results. Results and discussion The GWP and FWC of one 48 oz. (1.42 L) bottle of unsweetened almond milk are 0.71 kg CO 2 e and 175 kg of water. A total of 0.39 kg CO 2 e (or 55%) of the GWP is attributable to the almond milk, with the remainder attributable to packaging. Almond cultivation alone is responsible for 95% of the FWC (167 kg H 2 O), because of irrigation water demand. Total primary energy consumption (TPE) is estimated at 14.8 MJ. The 48 oz. (1.42 L) PET bottle containing the almond milk is the single largest contributor to TPE (42%) and GWP (35%). Using recycled PET instead of virgin PET for the bottle considerably reduces all impact indicators except for eutrophication potential. Conclusions For the supply chain studied here, packaging choices provide the most immediate opportunities for reducing impacts related to GWP and TPE, but would not result in a significant reduction in FWC because irrigation water for almond cultivation is the dominant consumer. To provide context for interpretation, average US dairy milk appears to have about 4.5 times the GWP and 1.8 times the FWC of the studied almond milk on a volumetric basis.

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Section: System Definition and System Boundariesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Almond Productionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Life cycle assessment of California unsweetened almond milk

Winans

Macadam-Somer

Kendall

et al. 2019

Int J Life Cycle Assess

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“…The part I article of this series analyzed typical almond production through a life cycle inventory (LCI) of energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (as well as select air emissions) using weighted average values and prevailing practices to define typical production methods in orchards and in postharvest processing operations of hulling and shelling, which yield almond kernel (raw brown‐skin almonds) (Kendall et al. ). In this second article, variability and uncertainty in the life cycle model are examined along with temporary carbon storage in orchard biomass and soils.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Life Cycle–based Assessment of Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Almond Production, Part II: Uncertainty Analysis through Sensitivity Analysis and Scenario Testing

Marvinney¹,

Kendall²,

Brodt³

2015

J of Industrial Ecology

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SummaryThis is the second part of a two-article series examining California almond production. The part I article describes development of the analytical framework and life cycle-based model and presents typical energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for California almonds. This part II article builds on this by exploring uncertainty in the life cycle model through sensitivity and scenario analysis, and by examining temporary carbon storage in the orchard.Sensitivity analysis shows life cycle GHG emissions are most affected by biomass fate and utilization, followed by nitrous oxide emissions rates from orchard soils. Model sensitivity for net energy consumption is highest for irrigation system parameters, followed by biomass fate and utilization.Scenario analysis shows utilization of orchard biomass for electricity production has the greatest potential effect, assuming displacement methods are used for co-product allocation.Results of the scenario analysis show that 1 kilogram (kg) of almond kernel and associated co-products are estimated to cause between −3.12 to 2.67 kg carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2 -eq) emissions and consume between 27.6 to 52.5 megajoules (MJ) of energy. Coproduct displacement credits lead to avoided emissions of between −1.33 to 2.45 kg CO 2 -eq and between −0.08 to 13.7 MJ of avoided energy use, leading to net results of −1.39 to 3.99 kg CO 2 -eq and 15.3 to 52.6 MJ per kg kernel (net results are calculated by subtracting co-product credits from the results for almonds and co-products).Temporary carbon storage in orchard biomass and soils is accounted for by using alternative global warming characterization factors and leads to a 14% to 18% reduction in CO 2 -eq emissions. Future studies of orchards and other perennial cropping systems should likely consider temporary carbon storage.

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“…According to a literature review of these studies, the calculated CF of 0.41 kg CO 2 -eq/kg for sweet cherry production could be mitigated by a more organic orchard system, such as less consumption of synthetic fertilizer or substitution with manure, and less energy consumption due to accurate diesel use. The GHG emissions of almond production in California, USA were 0.9 kg CO 2 -eq/kg almond applying allocation methods by co-product of orchard biomass and shells used in electricity generation, where the main contributor of GHG emissions were nitrogen fertilizer and energy for irrigation [39]. Some research conducted with peaches in different countries showed an estimated CF between 0.1 to 0.16 kg CO 2 -eq/kg peaches using organic, integrated, and conventional farming systems in Greece [40]; a CF of 0.23 kg CO 2 -eq/kg in Italy [41]; and a CF of 0.37 kg CO 2 -eq/kg in China [42], where the main contributor was mineral nitrogen fertilizer at more than 50%.…”

Section: Comparison With Other Cf Studies Of Stone Fruitsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Carbon Footprint Assessment of Sweet Cherry Production: Hotspots and Improvement Options

Bravo¹,

López²,

Vásquez³

et al. 2017

Pol. J. Environ. Stud.

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The carbon footprint (CF) evaluates the overall amount of greenhouse gas emissions and removals associated with a product or activity across its life cycle. Today, the CF assessment has the potential to be a key measurement for increasing sustainable agricultural production. In addition, the export-oriented fruit sector has been challenged to quantify and reduce their CF. Worldwide there are scant peer-review studies that examine the CF of stone fruits (Prunus genus). The scarcity is most evident in sweet cherries, which is the third most exported stone fruit in the world in terms of value (after almonds and peaches). Chile is the largest southern hemisphere producer and exporter of sweet cherry fruit. Within this context, the present study is one of the first assessments of the CF of conventional sweet cherry production. This work considers Chilean agricultural practices and identifies key influencing factors (hotspots). It takes into account the following agricultural inputs: mineral fertilizers, pesticides, diesel consumption for agricultural operations, machinery, and electricity for irrigation. The results indicate that the average CF of the Chilean sweet cherry production is 0.41 kg CO 2 -eq/kg of harvested fruit, with a 95% confidence interval between 0.36 and 0.47 kg CO 2 -eq/kg. This value is higher than those for other stone fruits reported by the literature. Diesel and fertilizers are the most important contributors to the CF of sweet cherry cultivation. Improvement scenarios are evaluated for the hotspots in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the production of this fruit. This study provides quantitative environmental criteria associated with global warming concerns to the stakeholders in the fruit sector and to the agricultural policymakers.

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Life Cycle–based Assessment of Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Almond Production, Part I: Analytical Framework and Baseline Results

Cited by 48 publications

References 17 publications

Life cycle assessment of California unsweetened almond milk

Life cycle assessment of California unsweetened almond milk

Life Cycle–based Assessment of Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Almond Production, Part II: Uncertainty Analysis through Sensitivity Analysis and Scenario Testing

Carbon Footprint Assessment of Sweet Cherry Production: Hotspots and Improvement Options

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