Linking social change and developmental change: Shifting pathways of human development.

Abstract

P. M. Greenfield's new theory of social change and human development aims to show how changing sociodemographic ecologies alter cultural values and learning environments and thereby shift developmental pathways. Worldwide sociodemographic trends include movement from rural residence, informal education at home, subsistence economy, and low-technology environments to urban residence, formal schooling, commerce, and high-technology environments. The former ecology is summarized by the German term Gemeinschaft ("community") and the latter by the German term Gesellschaft ("society"; Tönnies, 1887/1957). A review of empirical research demonstrates that, through adaptive processes, movement of any ecological variable in a Gesellschaft direction shifts cultural values in an individualistic direction and developmental pathways toward more independent social behavior and more abstract cognition--to give a few examples of the myriad behaviors that respond to these sociodemographic changes. In contrast, the (much less frequent) movement of any ecological variable in a Gemeinschaft direction is predicted to move cultural values and developmental pathways in the opposite direction. In conclusion, sociocultural environments are not static either in the developed or the developing world and therefore must be treated dynamically in developmental research.

Socioeconomic Status and Parenting Priorities: Child Independence and Obedience Around the World

“…Yet, this gross distinction between Western and non-Western societies ignores that cultural values are dynamically shaped by ecological and societal factors (Markus & Kitayama, 2010). Particularly in the current era of social change and globalization, socioeconomic conditions of nations and families invoke adaptation in values and socialization (Greenfield, 2009;Kağıtçıbaşı 2005Kağıtçıbaşı , 2013, possibly even more so than national or ethnic heritage (Park, Joo, Quiroz, & Greenfield, 2015).…”

“…Developmental emphasis in socialization can shift when environmental change is introduced as culture is dynamically constructed based on human interactions with the surrounding context (Markus & Kitayama, 2010). We applied Greenfield's (2009) and Kağıtçıbaşı's (2005Kağıtçıbaşı's ( , 2013 models to predict the time trends: Both models suggest increased emphasis on child independence with economically 9 driven social change, and there has been the global pattern of economic development. Thus, we expected that parental valuation of child independence would be more likely in later study waves and for later birth cohorts.…”

“…Greenfield (2009) explains that in rural communities with little economic and educational development, group solidarity and obligatory social roles are beneficial to meeting communal needs in face-to-face interactions. By contrast, independence is adaptive in urban ecologies with characteristics of formal schooling and commercial economies; children are socialized to effectively participate in independent pursuits and compete in educational and economic realms (Greenfield, 2009). Based on Greenfield's theory, we hypothesized that nations with characteristics of urban, educated, and wealthy ecologies would evidence national culture that prioritizes child independence rather than obedience.…”

“…According to Kağıtçıbaşı's view, indicators of national socioeconomic development (e.g., urban, educated, wealthy ecology) may be associated with parental valuation of child independence but not with obedience. Considering both Greenfield's (2009) and Kağıtçıbaşı's (2005Kağıtçıbaşı's ( , 2013) models, we examined independence and obedience separately without presupposing an inverse relation between the two constructs.…”

“…Yet, societies vary in which types of values take priority in socializing children (Greenfield, Keller, Fuligni & Maynard, 2003;Quinn, 2005). A key factor that guides family values and societal norms concerning child socialization is socioeconomic status of individuals and societies (Greenfield, 2009;Kağıtçıbaşı 2005Kağıtçıbaşı , 2013Lareau, 2002Lareau, , 2011. Based on the data of 227,431 parents in 90 nations across fives study waves , we investigated how national and personal socioeconomic status shape national culture and parental goals concerning child independence and obedience.…”