Live exotic animals legally and illegally imported via the main Dutch airport and considerations for public health

Abstract

The trade in live animals and animal products is considered one of the major drivers of zoonotic disease emergence. Schiphol airport in the Netherlands is one of the largest European airports and is considered a main hub for legal and illegal import of exotic animals. However, so far there is little information about what pathogens these imported animals might carry with them. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the zoonotic risks of exotic animals imported into the Netherlands through Schiphol airport in 2013 and 2014. Based on a previous list of highly prioritised emerging zoonoses for the Netherlands (EmZoo list), WAHID and Promed databases, literature and expert opinions, a list of 143 potentially relevant zoonotic pathogens was compiled. In a step-wise selection process eighteen pathogen-host combinations that may pose a public health risk by the import of exotic animals via Schiphol airport were identified and these were assessed by expert elicitation. The five pathogens with the highest combined scores were Salmonella spp., Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus, West Nile virus, Yersinia pestis and arenaviruses, but overall, the public health risk of the introduction of these exotic pathogens into the Netherlands via the legal import of exotic animals was considered low. However, the vast majority of imported exotic animals were imported by trade companies, increasing the risk for specific groups such as retail and hobbyists/pet owners. It is expected that the risk of introduction of exotic zoonotic pathogens via illegal import is substantial due to the unknown health status. Due to changing trade patterns combined with changing epidemiological situation in the world and changing epidemiological features of pathogens, this risk assessment needs regular updating. The results could give directions for further adjusting of health requirements and risk based additional testing of imported exotic animals.

A One Health Perspective on the Human–Companion Animal Relationship with Emphasis on Zoonotic Aspects

“…In a risk assessment study, the five pathogens with the highest public health risk caused by the import of exotic animals were Salmonella spp., Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, West Nile virus, Yersinia pestis, and arenaviruses. The risk via legally imported animals was considered low, but substantial for illegally imported animals due to the unknown health status of the animals [183].…”

No need to beat around the bushmeat–The role of wildlife trade and conservation initiatives in the emergence of zoonotic diseases

“…Second, many traded animals escape or are intentionally released by their owners, potentially spreading pathogens to endemic species and other vectors [16,48]. Moreover, vectors like exotic mosquitos and fleas may be accidently imported with animals, possibly spreading to endemic species or facilitating zoonotic spillover at their destination [61]. Finally, as animal health certificates are not required in many countries and illegally traded animals enter the country in passenger baggage, imported wildlife often has an unknown health status, possibly carrying novel zoonotic pathogens and posing a high risk for public health [36,37,60,61,62].…”

“…Private exotic pet collections and zoological collections raise various wild animals in high-density, unnatural groupings, increasing cross-species transmission and eventual spillover risks. Exotic pets and zoo animals, if infected, can bring zoonotic pathogens into close contact with the animal caretakers, and inadequate care or scratch and bite injuries can facilitate zoonotic pathogen transmission [61].…”

“…This 'legal' wildlife trade remains widely accepted, as it carries no stigma and is not punishable by law [92]. Also, international trade regulations, like the EU Wildlife Trade Regulations, prescribe various spillover prevention procedures for the legal wildlife trade (e.g., import permits, animal health certificates, hygiene standards, pre-export quarantine, microbial control), but in practice, effective enforcement and adequate monitoring techniques are lacking, so that zoonotic disease emergence risks persist [61,92]. While many conservation organisations focus on the illegal wildlife trade, the legal wildlife trade is an expanding, problematic industry that poses severe threats of zoonotic pandemics [48,93].…”

The “Bio-Crime Model” of Cross-Border Cooperation Among Veterinary Public Health, Justice, Law Enforcements, and Customs to Tackle the Illegal Animal Trade/Bio-Terrorism and to Prevent the Spread of Zoonotic Diseases Among Human Population

“…One factor leading to the emergence and spread of zoonotic infections is due to the increase of contacts between animals and humans that occurs for many disparate reasons (pets, food, population density, bush-meat, globalization and illegal animal trafficking) ( 6 , 7 ). The trade in live animals and animal products is considered one of the major drivers of zoonotic disease emergence ( 8 ).…”