Liver macrophages revisited: The expanding universe of versatile responses in a spatiotemporal context

Abstract

The liver is a vital organ that continuously adapts to a wide and dynamic diversity of self-antigens and xenobiotics. This involves the active contribution of immune cells, particularly by the liver-resident macrophages, the Kupffer cells (KCs), which exert a variety of central functions in liver homeostasis and disease. As such, KCs interact with their microenvironment to shape the hepatic cellular landscape, control gut-derived signal integration, and modulate metabolism. On injury, the rapid recruitment of bone marrow monocyte-derived macrophages alters this status quo and, when unrestrained, drastically compromises liver homeostasis, immune surveillance, and tissue organization. Several factors determine the functional roles of liver macrophages in these processes, such as their ontogeny, activation/polarization profile and, importantly, spatial distribution within the liver. Loss of tolerance and adaptability of the hepatic immune environment may result in persistent inflammation, hepatic fibrosis, cirrhosis, and a tumorigenic niche promoting liver cancer. In this review, we aim at providing the most recent breakthroughs in our understanding of liver macrophage biology, particularly their diversity and adaptability in the hepatic spatiotemporal context, as well as on potential therapeutic interventions that may hold the key to tackling remaining clinical challenges of varying etiologies in hepatology.