Livestock depredation by snow leopard and Tibetan wolf: Implications for herders’ livelihoods in Wangchuck Centennial National Park, Bhutan

Abstract

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a serious problem in many parts of the world, and Bhutan's Wangchuck Centennial National Park (WCNP) is no exception. Located in the remote alpine areas of the eastern Himalaya, wildlife species such as snow leopard (SL) and Tibetan wolf (TW) are reported to kill livestock in many parts of the Park. Such depredation is believed to have affected the livelihoods of high-altitude herding communities, resulting in conflicts between them. This study provides analysis on the extent of livestock depredation by wildlife predators such as SL and TW and examines its implications for the livelihoods of herding communities of Choekhortoe and Dhur regions of WCNP. Using semi-structured questionnaires, all herders (n = 38) in the study area were interviewed. The questions pertained to livestock population, frequency of depredation and income lost due to depredation in the last five years from 2012 to 2016. This study recorded 2,815 livestock heads in the study area, with an average herd size of 74.1 stock. The average herd size holding showed a decreasing trend over the years, and one of the reasons cited by the herders is depredation by SL and TW and other predators. This loss equated to an average annual financial loss equivalent to 10.2% (US$837) of their total per capita cash income. Such losses have resulted in negative impacts on herders' livelihood; e.g. six herders (2012-2016) even stopped rearing livestock and resorted to an alternate source of cash income. The livestock intensification programmes, including pasture improvement through allowing controlled burning, and financial compensation, may be some potential short-term solutions to reduce conflict between herders and predators. Issuing permits for cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) collection only to the herders and instilling the sense of stewardship to highland herders may be one of the long-term solutions.

Ecological determinants of livestock depredation by the snow leopard Panthera uncia in Bhutan

“…Snow leopard depredation on livestock has been linked to a variety of factors including livestock encroachment into snow leopard habitat, scarcity of natural prey species, increasing distance to settlement, livestock herding system, elevation and terrain ruggedness (Johansson et al ., 2015; Sharma, Bhatnagar & Mishra, 2015; Chetri et al ., 2019; Jamtsho & Katel, 2019). Livestock presence on alpine meadows, for example, results in foraging competition with, and decline of, wild prey (Mishra et al ., 2004; Nyphus et al ., 2016; Jamtsho & Katel, 2019). As a consequence of this decline, snow leopards have been shown to switch their diet to livestock (Khorozyan et al ., 2015; Suryawanshi et al ., 2017).…”

“…At the same time, high abundance of livestock leads to a higher encounter rate and increased depredation (Chetri, 2018). Depredation is typically low near settlements, where livestock is well protected, and high at high elevations, where herds are either unattended or protected by only a few herders (Chetri, Odden & Wegge, 2017; Jamtsho & Katel, 2019). During winter, however, when livestock is taken to lower elevations (Lyngdoh et al ., 2014; Chetri et al ., 2017; Jamtsho & Katel, 2019), depredation near settlements may increase.…”

“…Depredation is typically low near settlements, where livestock is well protected, and high at high elevations, where herds are either unattended or protected by only a few herders (Chetri, Odden & Wegge, 2017; Jamtsho & Katel, 2019). During winter, however, when livestock is taken to lower elevations (Lyngdoh et al ., 2014; Chetri et al ., 2017; Jamtsho & Katel, 2019), depredation near settlements may increase. Nonetheless, because livestock is absent from the pastures during this time, the relative percentage of wild prey in the snow leopard diet is expected to increase.…”

Perspectives of traditional Himalayan communities on fostering coexistence with Himalayan wolf and snow leopard

“…Throughout the Asian highlands, pastoralists' attitudes toward snow leopards and wolves differ: they show a comparatively better tolerance toward snow leopards than toward wolves (Din et al, 2017;Jamtsho & Katel, 2019;Li et al, 2015;Maheshwari & Sathyakumar, 2019;Mishra, 1997;Suryawanshi et al, 2014;Suryawanshi, Bhatnagar, Redpath, & Mishra, 2013), even when snow leopards are responsible for higher economic loss than the wolves. Various factors like religion, income, education, species-specific characteristics, and cultural factors can explain the differences (Liu et al, 2011;Mishra, 1997).…”

Non-Violent Techniques for Human-Wildlife Conflict Resolution

“…As reported elsewhere in this report, livestock depredation in central Bhutan by wild carnivores, including leopard (Panthera pardus), tiger (Panthera tigris), Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibettanus) and dhole (Cuon alpinus), accounts for an average annual financial loss of 17% of farmers' total per-capita cash income, leopard and tiger causing the maximum loss [13]. In a recent study, livestock depredation by snow leopard and Tibetan wolf led to 10.2% loss of the total per capita income of herders each year -leading to decreasing number of resident herders at Wangchuk Centennial Park of Bhutan [145]. However, crop damages resulting from HWC appear to be much more than livestock depredation.…”