‘Living between Two Lions’: Civilian Protection Strategies during Armed Violence in the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo

Abstract

This article examines how civilians assess, negotiate with, and in some cases deceive armed actors in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It demonstrates that civilians not only navigate the precarious and unpredictable conditions within armed conflict, but also exploit these conditions to improve their security situations. The ‘self-protection’ strategies analysed aim to prevent, mitigate and confront violent threats that civilians encounter in their daily lives. This article argues that civilian self-protection strategies are especially prevalent in contexts marked as ‘no peace – no war’. Characterised by prolonged and low intensity violence, ‘no peace – no war’ contexts shape civilian self-protection strategies in three ways. First, civilians often develop a sophisticated understanding of the actors involved and the patterns of violence that unfold. Second, civilians often learn what particular strategies are most likely to be successful, typically through trial and error. Third, civilians have often become sceptical and cynical about international actors and activities. Understanding what actions civilians take to protect themselves, their families, and their communities is critical for the international community's role in peacemaking and peacebuilding.

Conflict, Protection, and Punishment: Repercussions of Violence in Eastern DR Congo

“…Community members prepare to flee further violence independently or in unison, work together to stay and resist further violence, or seek to bolster relationships with outside security networks. Most undertake a combination of approaches (Jose and Medie 2015;Suarez 2017). 5 Research demonstrates that civilian self-protection efforts can mitigate violence perpetrated by warring parties (Kaplan 2017;Krause 2018).…”

“…DR Congo is a weak state that fails to manage armed group violence in the east. Where present, the state's national armed forces are known to perpetrate violence against civilians and are perceived as an additional source of insecurity (Suarez 2017). This makes DR Congo an ideal case for exploring the local effects of violence exposure when civilians rely on themselves for protection.…”

“…I evaluate evidence for several theories of violence against women in eastern DR Congo, a place that continues to be wracked by armed violence and where civilian self-protection measures are a primary means of achieving community security from further armed group violence (Suarez 2017). I gathered original data through a series of 80 focus groups across 20 villages to measure preferences for punishment, drawing on a range of local practices.…”

The Rhetoric and Reality of Localisation: Refugee-Led Organisations in Humanitarian Governance

“…Research has also been undertaken looking at the role of 'civilian self-protection', including by internally displaced populations, in the context of armed conflict (Baines & Paddon, 2012;Jose & Medie, 2015;Kaplan, 2013;Masullo, Mouly, & Garrido, 2019;Suarez, 2017;Sutton, 2018). This work has examined the range of strategies adopted by crisis affected communities when faced with armed conflict or mass atrocities, including through non-engagement (e.g.…”

Rebel rule: A governmentality perspective

“…Consequently, depending on local power configurations, they often solicit protection from them, rather than from the state security forces. 109 Such protection generally revolves around ensuring political, physical, and socio-economic security. For example, Mai-Mai officers may safeguard clients' property by escorting their convoys, or protect illegal business activities by persuading or pressurizing state agents not to interfere.…”