Living on the Extreme Margin: Social Exclusion of the Transgender Population (<i>Hijra</i>) in Bangladesh

Abstract

The transgender people (hijra), who claim to be neither male nor female, are socially excluded in Bangladesh. This paper describes social exclusion of hijra [The term is used in this abstract both in singular and plural sense] focusing on the pathway between exclusion and sexual health. In an ethnographic study, 50 in-depth interviews with hijra, 20 key-informant interviews, and 10 focus-group discussions (FGDs), along with extensive field observations, were conducted. The findings revealed that hijra are located at the extreme margin of exclusion having no sociopolitical space where a hijra can lead life of a human being with dignity. Their deprivations are grounded in non-recognition as a separate gendered human being beyond the male-female dichotomy. Being outside this norm has prevented them from positioning themselves in greater society with human potential and security. They are physically, verbally, and sexually abused. Extreme social exclusion diminishes self-esteem and sense of social responsibility. Before safer sex interventions can be effective in a broader scale, hijra need to be recognized as having a space on society's gender continuum. Hijra, as the citizens of Bangladesh and part of society's diversity, have gender, sexual and citizenship rights, that need to be protected.

The Lived Experiences of Transgender Persons: A Meta-Synthesis

“…44-45). However, although most transgender people had a strong desire to be loved and accepted by a partner, it was difficult for them to find one who would be willing to commit to a long-term relationship, due to sociocultural norms and laws that did not recognize same-sex relationships and considered that this kind of relationship was transgressive, in being beyond heteronormativity (Khan et al, 2009;Melendez & Pinto, 2007;Ocha, 2013). This led to feelings of uncertainty in family life and a belief that they were only an object of sexual exploitation.…”

“…Similarly, transgender individuals living in Western countries face various forms of discrimination in many different settings, including workplaces, educational institutions, health care services, religious or church organizations, and social welfare agencies, and also as a consequence of government policies (Budge, Tebbe, & Howard, 2010 Dentice, 2009;Dispenza, Watson, Chung, & Brack, 2012;McKinney, 2005;Sausa et al, 2007;Yarhouse & Carrs, 2012). Furthermore, in part as a result of their marginalization from other work environments, transgender individuals tend to engage in sex work, and therefore have a higher risk of HIV infection (Bockting, Robinson, & Rosser, 1998;Khan et al, 2009;Melendez & Pinto, 2007;Nemoto, Sausa, Operario, & Keatley, 2006;Sausa et al, 2007).…”

“…Moreover, transgender people tend to experience discrimination, stigmatization, physical and mental violence, psychological distress, and physical health problems (de Lind van Wijngaarden, Schunter, & Iqbal, 2012;Khan et al, 2009;Sausa, Keatley, & Operario, 2007). According to Lombardi (2011), transgender persons encounter not only abuse, discrimination, and barriers to receiving health care, but are also vulnerable to developing substance abuse problems and HIV infection.…”

A Psychosocial Study of Male-to-Female Transgendered and Male Hustler Sex Workers in São Paulo, Brazil

“…As transpeople have reported suffering more violence and prejudice than male hustlers even before starting to work as prostitutes Johnson, Brett, Roberts, & Wassersug, 2007;Khan et al, 2009) and maintaining strong bonds with peers based on a sharing identity (Collumbien et al, 2009), we predicted that they would show more depressive symptoms and score less on novelty seeking (which is strongly correlated with a search for thrill) and more on harm avoidance (which is directly correlated with fear and behavioral inhibition) than male hustlers. On the contrary, since some studies on male hustlers have described many of them as heavy drug users and frequently involved in criminal activities (Boyer, 1989;Earls & David, 1989;Falcon, 2007), we predicted that these sex workers would show more of these problems than the group of transgender sex workers.…”

The paradox of recognition:hijra, third gender and sexual rights in Bangladesh

“…One common perspective among the various groups (NGOs, government officials and HIV researchers) working on the hijra was that the lack of recognition of hijra as a separate gender was the root cause of social discrimination against them, including their vulnerabilities to sexually transmitted infections and HIV (Khan et al 2009). The campaign for the recognition of the hijra as a third gender can be read as an example of this shift, especially from the perspective of the NGOs connected with the transnational network of sexual health and rights activism.…”