“…Firstly, policies designed to channel more benefits to host communities are often poorly designed and do not always map on to local-level realities on the ground. For example, LCPs, although now a common requirement in most agreements with mining companies, have been widely criticised for their difficult and ineffective implementation, as well as their limited capacity to address the structural limits of extractive impacts (Calignano and Vaaland 2018;Geenen 2019;Lange and Kinyondo 2016;Lebdioui 2019;Macatangay 2016;Nwapi 2015;Ovadia 2014). Moreover, the effectiveness of the main catalysts which can potentially stimulate local-level developmentfor example, taxes and royalties, linkages and spillovers, and CSRvary widely by context and are often controversial in terms of their implementation and effectiveness (Bebbington 2013).…”