Long Chain Fatty Acids as Modulators of Immune Cells Function: Contribution of FFA1 and FFA4 Receptors

Abstract

Long-chain fatty acids are molecules that act as metabolic intermediates and constituents of membranes; however, their novel role as signaling molecules in immune function has also been demonstrated. The presence of free fatty acid (FFA) receptors on immune cells has contributed to the understanding of this new role of long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs) in immune function, showing their role as anti-inflammatory or pro-inflammatory molecules and elucidating their intracellular mechanisms. The FFA1 and FFA4 receptors, also known as GPR40 and GPR120, respectively, have been described in macrophages and neutrophils, two key cells mediating innate immune response. Ligands of the FFA1 and FFA4 receptors induce the release of a myriad of cytokines through well-defined intracellular signaling pathways. In this review, we discuss the cellular responses and intracellular mechanisms activated by LCFAs, such as oleic acid, linoleic acid, palmitic acid, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), in T-cells, macrophages, and neutrophils, as well as the role of the FFA1 and FFA4 receptors in immune cells.

Chitosan Oleate Coated PLGA Nanoparticles as siRNA Drug Delivery System

“…A further aspect that should be considered in the present case is the complex composition of the studied NPs, in which chitosan is hydrophobically modified with oleic acid. In addition, for oleic acid such as for other unsaturated fatty acids, both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory activity has been demonstrated [ 61 , 62 ]. Is well known, moreover, that cationic particles induce inflammation to a great extent than anionic and neutral ones [ 63 ].…”

The risk of essential fatty acid insufficiency in patients with inflammatory bowel diseases: fatty acid profile of phospholipids in serum and in colon biopsy specimen

“…It is known, that C18:1 is involved in mediating anti-inflammatory responses with immune cells [ 10 ]. In our study, the mean level of colon mucosa phospholipid C18:1 was significantly lower in patients with inflammatory bowel diseases than in controls.…”

“…It should be stressed that mucosa SFA levels were positively correlated with disease activity in patients with IBD. In the most recent studies, the role of C16 in mediating the function of isolated macrophages and the pro-inflammatory effects on macrophages in conditions such as obesity or when high-fat diets are ingested have been indicated [ 10 ].…”

Involvement of the Intestinal Microbiota in the Appearance of Multiple Sclerosis: Aloe vera and Citrus bergamia as Potential Candidates for Intestinal Health

“…Scientific studies have demonstrated, in vivo, that even a diet rich in salt determines adverse effects in MS: for example, a high amount of salt promotes the differentiation of proinflammatory TH17 cells, which develop a more pathogenic phenotype and a worsening of the course of the disease. In addition, Farez et al found, in a study of 70 patients with RRMS, that those with a medium-high salt intake had clinical recurrence rates 3.95 times higher than those with low sodium intake [37]. However, it is worth pointing out that these findings have been contradictory and that, currently, there are no further published clinical studies on the correlation of sodium intake and MS. On the contrary, increased fruit and vegetable intake has been associated with reduced levels of disease activity and disability [38].…”