Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Effects on Cardiovascular Risk in Childhood: A Narrative Review

Abstract

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) are semi-essential fatty acids widely studied in adult subjects for their healthy-heart effects, especially on secondary prevention in patients who already experienced a cardiac event. LCPUFAs consumption is safe, without adverse effects, and they are usually well-tolerated; they can be taken either in foods or as nutritional supplements. LCPUFAs’ positive effect on global health has been worldwide recognized also for pediatric patients. In childhood and adolescence, research has mainly focused on LCPUFAs’ effects on neurodevelopment, brain and visual functions and on maternal–fetal medicine, yet their cardiovascular effects in childhood are still understudied. Atherosclerosis is a multifactorial process that starts even before birth and progresses throughout life; thus, cardiovascular prevention is advisable and effective from the very first years of life. Nutritional and lifestyle interventions are the main factors that can interfere with atherosclerosis in childhood, and the consumption of specific nutrients, such as LCPUFAs, can enhance positive nutritional effects. The aim of our narrative review is to analyze the effect of LCPUFAs on cardiovascular risk factors and on cardiovascular risk prevention in developmental age, focusing on specific conditions such as weight excess and dyslipidemia.

Complementary Feeding: Tradition, Innovation and Pitfalls

“…Prebiotics (e.g., fructo-oligosaccharides and galacto-oligosaccharides, and more recently other human milk oligosaccharides) are used for their ability to increase the proportion of Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria gut colonization and decrease that of Escherichia and Clostridia species, without side effects [ 8 ]. Current evidence has linked long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) to the improvement in neurological development in breastfed (BF) infants compared to formula-fed (FF) infants [ 9 ]. HM nutritional composition changes dynamically over time, depending on the mammary gland physiology, maternal diet, maternal health, and many other environmental factors [ 10 , 11 ].…”

“…Algae-derived DHA is a good option for vegan mothers’ supplementation, as the only very long-chain n -3 fatty acid precursor found in good amounts in plants is α-linolenic acid (ALA). ALA can be found in walnut, canola, soybean, linseed, echium seed oils, algae, paprika Capsicum annuum , and chia Salvia hispanica [ 9 ]. Indeed, breast milk and/or DHA-supplemented formula represents a good source of DHA in infants’ nutrition.…”

“…However, if mothers' diets are deficient or selective, their infants may have low intakes of specific vitamins and minerals [17]. Indeed, the HM concentrations of most group B vitamins, selenium, iodine, and LCPUFAs are directly influenced by dietary maternal intake [9]. Hence, exclusively BF infants born to mothers on a strict vegan diet and not receiving appropriate supplementation, or with unrecognized pernicious anemia, can present with clinical signs of vitamin B12 deficiency [29].…”

Dietary Models and Cardiovascular Risk Prevention in Pediatric Patients

“…Agnihotri et al recently analyzed children’s adherence to ND at 6 months, 18 months, 3 years and 7 years, and its potential association with childhood overweight at 8 years, using data from 14,989 patients collected by a large cohort study (Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study) [ 111 ]. In unadjusted analyses, adherence to ND at 6 months showed an inverse correlation with the risk of overweight at 8 years, when comparing high versus low ND adherence (odds ratio = 0.81, 95% CI [0.70, 0.94]), and in the continuous score (odds ratio = 0.95, 95% CI [0.91, 0.98]).…”

Lipase-Catalyzed Synthesis of Structured Fatty Acids Enriched with Medium and Long-Chain n-3 Fatty Acids via Solvent-Free Transesterification of Skipjack Tuna Eyeball Oil and Commercial Butterfat

“…Long-chain unsaturated fatty acids are important for the growth of the central nervous system in infants and the cardiovascular system in adults [5,6]. The development of infant organs and biological systems depends entirely on the nutrients present in human milk.…”