<p>Cytokine Response in SARS-CoV-2 Infection in the Elderly</p>

Abstract

The last few months of 2019 witnessed the emergence, rise and rapid spread of a novel coronavirus known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), causing an acute respiratory disease called coronavirus disease 2019 or Covid-19. Severe pathological manifestations of the disease in the infected population with comorbidities are linked to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), associated with an exaggerated synthesis and expression of cytokines, leading to a systemic inflammatory response also known as a cytokine storm (CS). Elderly patients (>60 years of age) showed more deaths in Covid-19 infection. Age-related immune imbalance increases patient susceptibility to CS. In acute Covid-19 infection, it is difficult to minimize or control the overproduction of cytokines; hence, limited medical treatments are effective. This review aims to provide an overview of the current knowledge of involvement of cytokines in SARS-CoV-2 infection, susceptibility factors for the accompanying cytokine storm in severe Covid-19 cases and possible treatment strategies.

Knowledge and practice of personal protective measures during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study in Saudi Arabia

“…The virus has an incubation period of up to 14 days in infected individuals either with common symptoms, including fever, cough and shortness of breath, or without signs of the infection (asymptomatic) [ 6 ]. The ability of SARS-CoV2 to cause severe complications in a relatively short span of time in a cross-section of infected individuals, with devastating repercussions ranging from acute pneumonia, respiratory distress syndrome, heart failure, cytokine storm and multi-organ dysfunction present a unique challenge and burden to health care facilities around the world [ 7 ]. Hence, transmission of the SARS-CoV2 from asymptomatic carriers is one of the major preventative challenges for controlling this viral infection [ 8 ].…”

ABC2-SPH risk score for in-hospital mortality in COVID-19 patients: development, external validation and comparison with other available scores

“…Aging is associated with a well-known decline in the adaptive and innate immunity, which plays a major role in the increased susceptibility of infections 42 . Age-related immune imbalance is also related to an increased severity in pro-inflammatory response and increased cytokine production, what is believed to increase patient vulnerability to the unregulated inflammatory response in COVID-19 43 . Other authors hypothesize that decreased lung elasticity, increased end-expiratory and abnormal alveolar integrity related to lung senescence, which may be associated to kidney senescence play a role in the predisposition for severe COVID-19 and mortality 10 .…”

“…It is important to highlight the evidence of a decreased antibody production following immunization in the elderly, as well as shortened duration of protective immunity 43 . This might be the case for COVID-19 as well.…”

Coronavirus Disease 19 from the Perspective of Ageing with Focus on Nutritional Status and Nutrition Management—A Narrative Review

“…A main cause of death in COVID-19 is abnormal immune response with uncontrolled secretion of cytokines, the so-called a cytokine storm [ 4 ]. Immunosenescence is a complex process characterized by poor response to vaccines, a higher incidence of infections, and the prevalence of chronic conditions such as hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease related to ageing [ 5 , 6 , 7 ].…”