<p>Schistosomiasis: Still a Cause of Significant Morbidity and Mortality</p>

Abstract

Tropical diseases remain severe threats to global health with acute or chronic debility. Public health issues are regularly monitored and reported by the WHO. Conditions with high prevalence and virulence such as Schistosomiasis or Malaria still need active treatment. Advances over the decades in the treatment and management of Schistosomiasis have reduced morbidity and mortality in patients. However, poverty, adverse environments, lack of education and awareness, with parasites and vectors that can thrive if uncontrolled, remain issues for the successful global eradication of Schistosomiasis. From the disease's discovery in 1850, the author relates historical details to its current status. Several countries previously affected, including Japan and Tunisia, have eliminated the disease while others seek the same goal. Africa remains the most severely affected continent with vulnerable women and children, although the infection persists in South America and the Far East of Asia as well. Realistic improvements for continuing health conditions are vogue and emphasized for those at risk or afflicted by the infection, illustrating success models of concerted efforts of extirpation. Constant proximity to infected water, with a parasite host, are hurdles in reducing exposure. Effective medication for acute treatment is available, and prophylaxis by vaccination is promising. Where endemic Schistosomiasis is prevalent, significant morbidity and mortality have far-reaching complications in multiple human organ systems, including irreversible pulmonary hypertension, renal, genitourinary, central nervous system conditions, and neoplasia. Two hundred and thirty million people are estimated to have contracted Schistosomiasis globally, with up to 700 million still at risk of infection, and 200,000 deaths occur annually. The disease may be more prevalent than thought after newer tests have shown increased sensitivity to pathological antigens. The author discusses infectivity risks, investigations, prognosis, treatment, and management, as well as morbidity and mortality.

Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification as Point-of-Care Diagnosis for Neglected Parasitic Infections

“…Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is a tropical parasitic disease causing significant morbidity and mortality rates, especially in developing countries; it is the third most reported tropical disease and the second most reported in the sub-Saharan region [143]. Several Schistosoma species have been described; however, most cases are attributed to three species in particular: Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma japonicum and Schistosoma mansoni.…”

“…Several Schistosoma species have been described; however, most cases are attributed to three species in particular: Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma japonicum and Schistosoma mansoni. Reports of the disease being caused by species such as Schistosoma mekongi and Schistosoma intercalatum are less common [143]. S. haematobium and S. mansoni are the most prevalent species in Africa and the Middle East whereas only S. mansoni occurs in Latin America and S. japonicum in Asia [144].…”

“…It has been estimated that around 250 million people are affected by the disease worldwide and more than 779 million are at risk of becoming infected, causing close to 280,000 deaths annually [145]. This makes it one of the five zoonotic diseases whose global health rate has been underestimated [143]. These blood-feeding flukes are responsible for significant clinical complications involving the liver, intestines, spleen and bladder, leading to chronic inflammation and fibrosis [146].…”

Parasite–bacteria interrelationship

“…Schistosomiasis is a global cause of morbidity and mortality with more than 230 million people infected worldwide and up to 700 million still at risk of infection. Unfortunately, the disease is responsible for approximately 200,000 deaths annually (Colley et al 2014;Verjee 2019). Added to its problem is the co-infection with other pathogens that may occur in some localities.…”

Kinins and Their Receptors in Infectious Diseases

“…Four main species ( S. intercalatum , S. japonicum , S. mansoni and S. mekongi ) and S. haematobium are trematodes that infect humans and provoke intestinal and urogenital schistosomiasis forms, respectively [ 170 ]. Schistosomiasis is a public health problem that severely affects children and pregnant women, and disease complications can lead to increased morbidity and mortality [ 172 ].…”