Lunar Laser Ranging: a tool for general relativity, lunar geophysics and Earth science

Müller, Jürgen; Murphy, Thomas W.; Schreiber, Ulrich; Shelus, P. J.; Torre, Jean‐Marie; Williams, J. G.; Boggs, D. H.; Bouquillon, S.; Bourgoin, Adrien; Hofmann, Franz

doi:10.1007/s00190-019-01296-0

Cited by 54 publications

(41 citation statements)

References 96 publications

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“…Munk, 1968;Ray, 1994;Rubincam, 2016;Touma & Wisdom, 1994). Lunar laser ranging reveals that the present-day 3.7 TW tidal energy dissipation rate (Egbert & Ray, 2003) is associated with a 3.8 cm/year increase in the geocentric lunar orbit semi-major axis (Dickey et al, 1994;J. Müller et al, 2019; J. G. Williams & Boggs, 2016; J. G. Williams et al, 1978).…”

Section: Tidal Energy Dissipationmentioning

confidence: 99%

Long‐Term Earth‐Moon Evolution With High‐Level Orbit and Ocean Tide Models

et al. 2021

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Tides and Earth-Moon system evolution are coupled over geological time. Tidal energy dissipation on Earth slows  Earth Es rotation rate, increases obliquity, lunar orbit semi-major axis and eccentricity, and decreases lunar inclination. Tidal and core-mantle boundary dissipation within the Moon decrease inclination, eccentricity and semi-major axis. Here we integrate the Earth-Moon system backwards for 4.5 Ga with orbital dynamics and explicit ocean tide models that are "high-level" (i.e., not idealized). To account for uncertain plate tectonic histories, we employ Monte Carlo simulations, with tidal energy dissipation rates (normalized relative to astronomical forcing parameters) randomly selected from ocean tide simulations with modern ocean basin geometry and with 55, 116, and 252 Ma reconstructed basin paleogeometries. The normalized dissipation rates depend upon basin geometry and  Earth E s rotation rate. Faster Earth rotation generally yields lower normalized dissipation rates. The Monte Carlo results provide a spread of possible early values for the Earth-Moon system parameters. Of consequence for ocean circulation and climate, absolute (un-normalized) ocean tidal energy dissipation rates on the early Earth may have exceeded  today E s rate due to a closer Moon. Prior to  E 3 Ga, evolution of inclination and eccentricity is dominated by tidal and core-mantle boundary dissipation within the Moon, which yield high lunar orbit inclinations in the early Earth-Moon system. A drawback for our results is that the semi-major axis does not collapse to near-zero values at 4.5 Ga, as indicated by most lunar formation models. Additional processes, missing from our current efforts, are discussed as topics for future investigation. Plain Language Summary Tidal dissipation ins oceans and solid body cause the distance to the Moon and the length of day to increase over time. Tides also change the eccentricity and tilt of the lunar orbit, and  Earth E s obliquity (the tilt between the equator plane and the ecliptic plane of our orbit around the Sun). This paper attempts to calculate the evolution of the Earth-Moon system over the whole of  Earth E s history using sophisticated ocean tide and orbit models. Over long time scales, the rate at which tidal energy is being dissipated is affected by the geometrical configuration of the continents, the length of day, and mean sea level, which is affected by plate tectonic forces and the presence or absence of large ice caps. The faster rotating Earth of the past was less efficient at dissipating energy and the present placement of the continents enhances some tides due to resonances. In addition, tidal dissipation in the Moon slows the orbit evolution by absorbing energy from the orbit and there was a time in the distant past when the  Moon s E tidal dissipation was large. The evolution of the Earth-Moon system is complex and uncertain, but it can be addressed with advanced models.

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Section: Tidal Energy Dissipationmentioning

confidence: 99%

Long‐Term Earth‐Moon Evolution With High‐Level Orbit and Ocean Tide Models

et al. 2021

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“…The collection of LLR data is part of a regular long-term observing program (Courde et al 2017b;Müller et al 2019). The LLR data are available at the data centers of the ILRS, including the NASA Crustal Dynamics Data Information System (CDDIS) (Noll 2018).…”

Section: The Grasse Laser Ranging Stationmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Technological improvements to the station equipments, such as detectors, lasers, and telescopes, have improved the accuracy of the ranging measurements from tens of centimeters to sub-cm (Murphy 2013;Courde et al 2017b;Müller et al 2019). Since 2008, robotic missions from NASA and other nations have brought a wealth of new scientific data and pushed lunar science further.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

First two-way laser ranging to a lunar orbiter: infrared observations from the Grasse station to LRO’s retro-reflector array

Mazarico

Sun

Torre

et al. 2020

Earth Planets Space

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We present the results of the first series of successful two-way laser ranging experiments from a ground station, the Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR) station in Grasse, France, to a spacecraft at lunar distance, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO). A 15 × 18 × 5 cm, 650-g array of twelve 32-mm diameter solid corner cubes is mounted on its anti-nadir deck. Ranging to this small retro-reflector array onboard a lunar orbiter from a ground station was a challenge compared to ranging to larger lunar surface retro-reflectors. Grasse measured 67 returns in two 6-min sessions on September 4, 2018. Clear returns were also recorded during two additional sessions on August 23-24, 2019 for which active slewing by LRO was performed to bring the array in view of the station. The measured echos yielded range residuals less than 3 cm (two-way time-of-flight RMS < 180 ps) relative to the reconstructed LRO trajectory. This experiment provides a new method of verifying theories of dust accumulation over decades on the lunar surface. It also showed that the use of similar arrays onboard future lunar landers and orbiters can support LLR lunar science goals, particularly with landing sites near the lunar limbs and poles, which would have better sensitivity to lunar orientation.

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“…(Biskupek et al 2021;Zhang et al 2020;Williams et al 2012;Viswanathan et al 2018). For selenophysics, LLR is sensitive to the lunar orbit, solid tides, and orientation (Müller et al 2019;Williams et al 2014). These quantities are all affected by the Moon's internal structure.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Characteristics of differential lunar laser ranging

Zhang

Müller

Biskupek

et al. 2022

A&A

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Context. To obtain more details about the lunar interior, a station at Table Mountain Observatory of JPL will enable a new measurement of lunar laser ranging (LLR), known as differential lunar laser ranging (DLLR). It will provide a novel type of observable, namely, the lunar range difference, which is the difference of two consecutive ranges obtained via a single station swiftly switching between two or more lunar reflectors. This previously unavailable observation will have a very high level of accuracy (about 30 µm), mainly resulting from a reduction in the Earth's atmospheric error. In addition to the intended improvements for the lunar part, it is expected to contribute to improved relativity tests, for instance, the equivalence principle (EP). Aims. This paper focuses on the simulation and investigation of the characteristics of DLLR. Methods. Using simulated DLLR data, we analyzed and compared the parameter sensitivity, correlation, and accuracy obtained by DLLR with those attained by LLR. Results. The DLLR measurement maintains almost the same sensitivity to certain parameters (called group A) as that of LLR, such as the lunar orientation parameters. For other parameters (called group B), such as station coordinates, it is shown to be less sensitive. However, owing to its extraordinary measurement accuracy, it not only retains nearly the same level of accuracy of group B as LLR, but it also improves the estimation of group A significantly (with the exception of reflector coordinates, due to the DLLR measuring mode). Also, DLLR increases the correlations among the reflectors and between stations and reflectors caused by its constellation. Additionally, we compared different switching intervals with respect to sensitivity and correlation. Large switching intervals are more beneficial for group B and the decorrelation of stations and reflectors. Furthermore, DLLR enhances the accuracy of EP tests.

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Lunar Laser Ranging: a tool for general relativity, lunar geophysics and Earth science

Cited by 54 publications

References 96 publications

Long‐Term Earth‐Moon Evolution With High‐Level Orbit and Ocean Tide Models

Long‐Term Earth‐Moon Evolution With High‐Level Orbit and Ocean Tide Models

First two-way laser ranging to a lunar orbiter: infrared observations from the Grasse station to LRO’s retro-reflector array

Characteristics of differential lunar laser ranging

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