Making Meaningful Materials Easier to Learn: Lessons from Cognitive Strategy Research

Abstract

By this point in the volume, it should be apparent that cognitive psychologists (and more specifically, the authors contributing to this book) are bullish on the position that use of strategies can increase learning. Nonetheless, it should also be obvious that learners (especially children) do not always use cognitive strategies that they could use, and that sometimes strategy usage is difficult even when strategy usage instructions are provided. That does not mean, however, that when learners cannot or do not execute strategies, cognitive strategy researchers have nothing to offer. In fact, cognitive strategy research includes a plethora of data on how to modify materials so that they are easier to comprehend and learn. In this chapter that research will be selectively reviewed.The principal concern in the chapter is with children's processing of meaningful materials including prose, television programs, and oral communication. The focus on these types of materials follows from my own research interests, as well as an awareness that much of cognitive psychology in recent years has been conducted in these content areas. However, readers should not assume that materials modifications recommendations based on cognitive research are limited to these domains. I hope that by explicating the relevance of cognitive research to materials development in the areas considered here, I will stimulate researchers with other substantive interests to reexamine research in their own problem areas with an eye toward materials development. Learning Materials and ResearchWell-intentioned educators and curriculum specialists have made many suggestions as to how to modify materials. One need only peruse any of a number of methods textbooks in language arts in order to generate a lengthy list of comments M. Pressley about how to prepare materials. Despite this large volume of suggestions, and even though publishers are constantly revising materials that are presented to children (e.g., Willows, Borwick, & Hayvren, 1981), evidence that materials modifications positively affect children's learning is scant (e.g., Levin & Pressley, 1981;Pressley, Levin, Kuiper, Bryant, & Michener, 1982). The research literature that does exist does little to inspire confidence in the wisdom of the armchair educator-analysts. For instance, many classroom tried and true vocabulary-learning techniques are no more effective than what learners do spontaneously (Levin, McCormick, Miller, Berry, & Pressley, 1982;Pressley, Levin, Kuiper, Bryant, & Michener, 1982). Moreover, in these same studies it has been demonstrated that techniques derived from conventional wisdom are impotent compared to alternatives based on cognitive learning approaches to vocabulary instruction. Such empirical failures reinforce the impression that many materials recommendations in the curriculum literature are probably wrong.That would not be so bad if children's learning of meaningful materials were proceeding smoothly. For readers uninitiated into the deficiencies evidenced and problem...

A primer of research on cognitive strategy instruction: The important issues and how to address them

“…Differences in performance between the two groups are assumed due to the material modifications. The track record for material modifications is good, with many modifications improving learning and other aspects of cognitive performance (e.g., Graesser and Black, 1985;Houghton and Willows, 1987;Pressley, 1983;Scardamalia and Bereiter, 1986;Willows and Houghton, 1987).…”

“…Passages can state information explicitly rather than requiring readers to infer it. See Pressley (1983) for other examples.…”

“…One view is that such aids are crutches potentially interfering with development of independent learning; an alternative perspective is that provision of optimal mediators might stimulate subsequent strategy acquisition and use. As learners realize better learning was due to mediators, they execute strategies to produce their own mediators (Pressley, 1983). No longitudinal data exist in support of either position, however.…”

Four Cognitive Principles of Learning-Strategy Instruction

“…That is, certain strategies that are well suited to adults may not be well suited to children; or strategies that older children can apply effectively cannot be applied effectively by younger children. Often the adult version of a particular strategy can be adapted for use by children through simplification, concretization, extensive prompting, and practice (see, e.g., Pressley, 1983). Similar statements can be made about modifying learning strategies for use by educationally handicapped (e.g., learning disabled or educable mentally retarded) students (e.g., Mastropieri, Scruggs, & Levin, 1985;Pressley & Levin, in press) or by students with skills that differ from those demanded by the strategy (e.g., Levin & Pressley, 1985).…”

Elaborating to Learn and Learning to Elaborate

“…The potential for materials to stimulate cognitive development has barely been studied, but provides an exciting new arena for curriculum researchers to map out. See Pressley (1983) for extensive commentary on this theme.…”