Malaria in antiquity: a genetics perspective

Abstract

Historical texts provide credible evidence regarding the occurrence of malaria in recent human history but how far this antiquity stretches back through our hominid ancestors is questionable. Genetic analysis of the Plasmodium falciparum genome sequence has thus far failed to clarify the issue, but available evidence suggests a recent expansion of this Plasmodium species within the last 6,000 years. This coincides with an expansion of both human and mosquito populations brought about by the advent of agriculture. The shift from small groups of hunter-gatherers to larger settled populations was crucial in sustaining P. falciparum transmission and it is noteworthy that a number of malaria-protective polymorphisms also have origins in this timeframe. The antiquity of other Plasmodium species is more uncertain, but preliminary studies of Plasmodium vivax suggest it is considerably older than its more deadly relative.

Was malaria present in the Amazon before the European conquest? Available evidence and future research agenda

“…As a consequence, it survives even in adverse environments for malaria transmission, with small and isolated populations. P. falciparum, however, probably became adapted to humans after the advent of agriculture, and the resulting higher population density [15,17].…”

“…Whether or not malaria was present in the New World before 1492 is a question that has been debated multiple times in a myriad of disciplines [4,9,12,[15][16][17]29]. Anthropologists, archaeologists, epidemiologists, historians, and biomedical scientists each provide evidence against the presence of malaria before the conquest.…”

“…Anthropologists, archaeologists, epidemiologists, historians, and biomedical scientists each provide evidence against the presence of malaria before the conquest. The lines of evidence are based on recently acquired knowledge about the evolution of the malaria parasite in humans and primates, the limited occurrence of genetic mutations caused by malaria [10,15], connections between selection for human ABO blood groups and malaria [29], the unsuitable environmental conditions for malaria transmission during migratory movements through Siberia and Alaska by the first occupants of the American continent [4], and historical records of pre-Columbian civilizations [8]. Opposite views have also been proposed, primarily based on the fact that Aztecs knew the therapeutic properties of the cinchona tree (from which quinine is derived) for fevers.…”

The skeletal manifestation of malaria: An epidemiological approach using documented skeletal collections

“…Malaria is a blood-borne infection involving human hosts and Anopheles mosquito vectors. Falciparum malaria distinguishes itself from vivax malaria in its severity, being more virulent in general and having a greater potential to cause the death of its host (Webb, 2009); however, vivax malaria has also been implicated in major health complications and death in antiquity (Hume et al, 2003). The two species of major global importance (i.e., having the greatest impact on human health) today are P. falciparum and P. vivax (Webb, 2009).…”

Expected changes in the length of Anopheles maculipennis (Diptera: Culicidae) larva season and the possibility of the re-emergence of malaria in Central and Eastern Europe and the North Balkan region

“…Malaria infected the human populations of the Mediterranean region (Facchini et al, 2004;Hume, 2003) or the British Islands (Gowland and Western, 2012), and malaria was a constant scourge in Roman Italy, including the capital of the Roman Empire (Temin, 2006). There are evidences, that Plasmodium falciparum Welch, 1897 caused malaria spread only during the late antiquity era in the Mediterranean (Sallares et al, 2004).…”