“…In the last decade, extensive efforts have been made to study the interactions of ECs, SMCs, or both with varying topography stimuli, with some reported to achieve selective modulation of the vascular cells. Among them, the influence of various surface morphology profiles including regular grooves [ 12 ], pillars [ 13 ], and pits [ 14 ], and irregular morphology of defined roughness parameters have been investigated [ 15 ], where substrates of polymers (PDMS, PVC, PS and PLA), ceramics (silicon, bulk metallic glass) and metals (Al 2 O 3 , TiO 2 , stainless steel and CoCr) were employed. For example, Ding et al reported 1 μm groove pattern on silicon wafers coated with a thin layer of titanium oxide was able to improve the ECs attachment and proliferation in vitro [ 14 ].…”