This article defends the principle, central to the Frankfurt School tradition of critical social theory, that social criticism should rely only on normative criteria that are "immanent" to the society under evaluation. My argument turns on the claim that a normative theory can have a practical aim that places legitimate constraints on its contents. For example, since the aim of advice is to contribute to the advisee's deliberation about what to do, a judgment about what someone should do is good advice only if that person could take it up in her own deliberation. I argue that there is a valuable kind of social criticism analogous to advice, which aims to contribute to the reflection of members of society on how to orient themselves practically to their social world. Drawing on the work of Bernard Williams, I suggest that concrete normative ideals can be so permeated by the needs, social relations, and concepts of one society that they are not real options in a sufficiently different social milieu. Because such criteria cannot serve as a genuine basis for practical orientation to the social world, they are ineligible for use in social criticism of this kind.
| INTRODUCTIONNormative theories have a practical role to play in human life: we can use them to choose and assess our actions and social institutions. Some philosophers hold that the practical role of normative theories can provide, not just reason to construct them, but legitimate constraints on their contents. According to Bernard Williams, the practical role of ethical theory is to guide an agent's deliberation about how to live and her corresponding action. Since this role requires that the agent believe the theory, an adequate ethical theory cannot be self-effacing, cannot require one to disbelieve it, even if maintaining false ethical beliefs would have better consequences. 1 According to John Rawls, a theory of justice should provide "a mutually acceptable point of view from which citizens' claims… can be adjudicated" in the ideally just society it describes-a role which requires it to be held by, and guide the reasoning and