Markers of Inflammation

Abstract

Inflammation is a complex and necessary component of the response to biological, chemical, or physical stimuli, and the cellular and molecular events that initiate and regulate the interactions between the various players in the inflammatory process remain a source of ongoing investigation. In the acute phase of the inflammatory response, cells of the immune system migrate to the site of injury in a carefully orchestrated sequence of events that is facilitated by soluble mediators such as cytokines, chemokines, and acute-phase proteins. Depending on the degree of injury, this acute phase may be sufficient to resolve the damage and initiate healing processes. Persistent inflammation, either as a result of prolonged exposure to stimulation or an inappropriate reaction against self-molecules, can lead to the chronic phase, in which tissue damage and fibrosis can occur. Chronic inflammation has been reported to contribute to numerous diseases, including arthritis, asthma, atherosclerosis, autoimmune diseases, diabetes, and cancer, and to conditions of aging. Hematology and clinical chemistry data from standard toxicology studies can provide an initial indication of the presence and sometimes the location of inflammation. These data may suggest more specific immune function assays that are necessary to determine the presence and/or mechanism(s) of immunomodulation. Although changes in hematology dynamics, acute-phase proteins, complement factors, and cytokines are common to virtually all inflammatory conditions, and can be measured by a variety of techniques, individual biomarkers have yet to be strongly associated with specific pathologic events. Thus, although sensitive indicators of inflammation, these factors generally lack the specificity to identify the offending cause. The profile seen in a given inflammatory condition is dependent on the severity, chronicity, and mechanisms involved in the inflammatory process, as well as the species and the capacity of the individual's immune system to respond and adapt.

Review on Inflammation Markers in Chronic Kidney Disease

“…The acute phase is usually short term and sufficient to resolve the injury. Persistent inflammation, either due to prolonged stimulation by biological, chemical, or physical stimuli, or inappropriate reaction against self-antigens, however, can prove to be problematic, as it can lead to development of chronic inflammation [6]. Possible association of cytokines with diabetic nephropathy was already observed almost 30 years ago [10].…”

“…Chronic inflammation on the other hand can lead to tissue damage and fibrosis. As such it has been associated with numerous diseases, CKD included [6]. We are only beginning to understand this very fine-tuned mechanism and research is still ongoing.…”

Investigation of molecular mechanisms of experimental compounds in murine models of chronic allergic airways disease using synchrotron Fourier-transform infrared microspectroscopy

“…Allergic inflammation is another major factor that contributes to irreversible remodelling of airway walls and increased bronchial hyperresponsiveness in people with asthma 58 – 60 . Using conventional methodologies, inflammation is characterised via histological assessment of immune cells infiltrating into airway tissues, changes to the composition of immune cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and key changes in inflammatory markers 61 . Several reports have identified inflammation by biochemical changes observed through the S-FTIR spectra 62 – 64 .…”

Association of Dairy Product Consumption with Metabolic and Inflammatory Biomarkers in Adolescents: A Cross-Sectional Analysis from the LabMed Study

“…Several inflammation markers are used due to their clinical relevance, including C-reactive protein (CRP) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). IL-6 is released by various cells, such as macrophages, T and B lymphocytes, and fibroblasts, and regulate hepatic C-reactive protein (CRP) synthesis [3]. A number of studies have reported positive associations between circulating concentrations of CRP and IL-6, and the risk of cardiovascular disease [4,5], cancer [6], metabolic syndrome [7,8], and type 2 diabetes mellitus [9,10].…”