Marriage and fatherhood are associated with lower testosterone in males

Gray, Peter B.; Kahlenberg, Sonya M.; Barrett, Emily S.; Lipson, Stephen J.; Ellison, Peter T.

doi:10.1016/s1090-5138(01)00101-5

Cited by 364 publications

(227 citation statements)

References 22 publications

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“…The finding that high involvement in childcare was associated with low T measured at follow-up but was not related to baseline T supports the hypothesis that direct care of dependent offspring suppressed T among the fathers in our sample (20,22). Our findings suggest that human males have an evolved neuroendocrine architecture that is responsive to committed parenting, supporting a role of men as direct caregivers during hominin evolution (13,14,21).…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 77%

“…Indeed, men with higher T have been shown to be more likely to have marital problems and to be divorced (4,18), whereas men with lower T have been found to spend more time with their wives (21). In an experimental setting, men with greater T also reported feeling less sympathy or need to respond to infant cries compared with men with lower T (37).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Multiple studies have shown that partnered men have lower T compared with single men (16,17), and a large 10-y study of US servicemen found that T decreased in men who married during the study period (18). In comparisons of men varying in both relationship and parenting status, partnered fathers have been shown to have the lowest T overall, differing significantly from single nonfathers in some populations (19)(20)(21), including the present study population (22,23). There is also increasing evidence that caregiving predicts which fathers have lowest T (20,22,24).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

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Longitudinal evidence that fatherhood decreases testosterone in human males

Gettler

McDade

Feranil

et al. 2011

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

434

381

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In species in which males care for young, testosterone (T) is often high during mating periods but then declines to allow for caregiving of resulting offspring. This model may apply to human males, but past human studies of T and fatherhood have been cross-sectional, making it unclear whether fatherhood suppresses T or if men with lower T are more likely to become fathers. Here, we use a large representative study in the Philippines (n = 624) to show that among single nonfathers at baseline (2005) (21.5 ± 0.3 y), men with high waking T were more likely to become partnered fathers by the time of follow-up 4.5 y later (P < 0.05). Men who became partnered fathers then experienced large declines in waking (median: −26%) and evening (median: −34%) T, which were significantly greater than declines in single nonfathers (P < 0.001). Consistent with the hypothesis that child interaction suppresses T, fathers reporting 3 h or more of daily childcare had lower T at follow-up compared with fathers not involved in care (P < 0.05). Using longitudinal data, these findings show that T and reproductive strategy have bidirectional relationships in human males, with high T predicting subsequent mating success but then declining rapidly after men become fathers. Our findings suggest that T mediates tradeoffs between mating and parenting in humans, as seen in other species in which fathers care for young. They also highlight one likely explanation for previously observed health disparities between partnered fathers and single men.challenge hypothesis | human evolution | hormones and behavior | paternal care | reproductive ecology I n male mammals, testosterone (T) stimulates the development and maintenance of traits and behaviors that contribute to male mating effort, including musculature, libido, conspecific aggressivity, and courtship (1-4). Although these T-driven traits factor into mating success, male reproductive fitness in some avian and mammalian species also depends on contributions to offspring care (5, 6). Because time and energy are finite (7), males in these species often face tradeoffs between conflicting behaviors related to mating and parenting. Adjustment of T production has been proposed as a physiological mechanism underlying this tradeoff, with males who focus on mating effort predicted to maintain elevated T, whereas males who cooperate with a female partner and invest in parental care should reduce T production (6,8). This model is well supported by data from a variety of avian species (6, 8), but evidence for its applicability to mammalian species in which males provide direct care is mixed (9). It is presently unclear whether T mediates the tradeoff between mating and parenting effort in human males, who often express paternal care facultatively.Humans have been described as serial monogamists who frequently engage in one or more long-lasting partnerships with females during reproductive life spans that last several decades (10-12). Humans are one of the few mammalian species in which paternal care is relati...

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 77%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

mentioning

confidence: 99%

See 1 more Smart Citation

Longitudinal evidence that fatherhood decreases testosterone in human males

Gettler

McDade

Feranil

et al. 2011

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

434

381

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

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“…A number of studies have reported that evening testosterone levels in humans and chimpanzees show stronger correlates with behavioural measures than do morning samples ( Worthman & Konner 1987;Berg & Wynne-Edwards 2001;Gray et al 2002;Muller & Wrangham 2004). This pattern may be widespread because morning testosterone levels reflect physiology during sleep, whereas evening samples are influenced by the cumulative outcomes of diurnal social interactions.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Testosterone and paternal care in East African foragers and pastoralists

et al. 2008

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The 'challenge hypothesis' posits that testosterone facilitates reproductive effort (investment in male-male competition and mate-seeking) at the expense of parenting effort (investment in offspring and mates). Multiple studies, primarily in North America, have shown that men in committed relationships, fathers, or both maintain lower levels of testosterone than unpaired men. Data from non-western populations, however, show inconsistent results. We hypothesized that much of this cross-cultural variation can be attributed to differential investment in mating versus parenting effort, even among married fathers. Here, we directly test this idea by comparing two neighbouring Tanzanian groups that exhibit divergent styles of paternal involvement: Hadza foragers and Datoga pastoralists. We predicted that high levels of paternal care by Hadza fathers would be associated with decreased testosterone in comparison with non-fathers, and that no such difference between fathers and non-fathers would be evident in Datoga men, who provide minimal direct paternal care. Twenty-seven Hadza men and 80 Datoga men between the ages of 17 and 60 provided morning and afternoon saliva samples from which testosterone was assayed. Measurements in both populations confirmed these predictions, adding further support to the hypothesis that paternal care is associated with decreased testosterone production in men.

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“…In keeping with the view that male parental investment increased during human evolution, a number of studies have identified possible suppressive effects of romantic relationships, marriage, or fatherhood on testosterone levels in men from several societies and, surprisingly, lesbians (Gray 2003;Gray et al 2002Gray et al , 2004Gray et al , 2006Gray et al , 2007Mazur & Michalek 1998;McIntyre et al 2006;van Anders & Watson 2006. Many of these studies have revealed interesting interactions suggesting that social and psychological factors might play subtle roles in regulating the suppression of testosterone and mating effort.…”

Section: Some Evidence From Adult Men and Womenmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Early Development of Gender Differences

McIntyre

Edwards

2009

Annu. Rev. Anthropol.

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This article reviews findings from anthropology, psychology, and other disciplines about the role of biological factors in the development of sex differences in human behavior, including biological theories, the developmental course of sex differences, and the interaction of biological and cultural gendering processes at different ages. Current evidence suggests that major biological influences on individual differences in human gender, to the extent that they exist, operate primarily in early development, during and especially prior to puberty. Biological effects are likely to be mediated by relatively simple processes, like temperament, which are then elaborated through social interactions (as with mother and peers) into more complex gendered features of adult personality. Biological anthropologists and psychologists interested in gender should direct more attention to understanding how social processes influence the development and function of the reproductive endocrine system.

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Marriage and fatherhood are associated with lower testosterone in males

Cited by 364 publications

References 22 publications

Longitudinal evidence that fatherhood decreases testosterone in human males

Longitudinal evidence that fatherhood decreases testosterone in human males

Testosterone and paternal care in East African foragers and pastoralists

The Early Development of Gender Differences

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