Measurement invariance of second-order factor model of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) across K-12 principal gender

Abstract

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate the factor structure and the measurement invariance of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) across gender of K-12 school principals (n=6,317) in the USA. Design/methodology/approach Nine first-order factor models and four second-order factor models were tested using confirmatory factor analysis. Findings The results suggested that the nine-factor model provided the best fit for the data. Further examination revealed that most constructs lacked convergent validity and discriminant validity. Second-order factor models were tested and the hierarchical model with two higher order factors (i.e. transformational and transactional leadership) was deemed the best fit and it was then tested for measurement invariance between females and males. The measurement model was found to be invariant across gender. Findings suggested that female school principals demonstrated significantly greater transformational leadership behaviour, while male school principals demonstrated significantly greater transactional leadership behaviour. Originality/value This study addressed construct and factor issues previously associated with the MLQ in the measurement of transformational and transactional leadership among a variety of organizations. By using a sample of K-12 school principals across gender, this study has provided support that may ameliorate contextual doubts of transformational leadership behaviour when examining the relational aspects needed to improve schools.

Human Flourishing in Cross Cultural Settings. Evidence From the United States, China, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, and Mexico

“…First, to examine whether item grouping was justified by the data, 5 (for FI) or 6 (for SFI)-factor models were tested (M1) with (1) one latent factor corresponding to each domain, (2) each item loaded only by a latent factor corresponding to the domain of an item and not by other latent factors, (3) correlated latent factors and (4) uncorrelated error terms. Secondly, a second-order factor model (M2) with (1) one latent factor corresponding to each domain, (2) each item loaded only by a latent factor corresponding to the domain of an item and not by other latent factors and (3) domain specific factors loaded by the second-order factor corresponding to human flourishing or secure human flourishing, for FI and SFI respectively (Xu et al, 2016). Schematics of these two specifications tested are shown in Figure 1.…”

A systematic narrative review of prosociality in educational leadership

“…Next, we consider four emotional aspects that are often connected to servant leadership. positive difference in others' lives by putting others' professional development ahead of one's own self-interest or cost (Cerit, 2009;Xu et al, 2015). Empathy refers to an awareness of others' feelings, needs, and concerns (Aas and Vavik, 2015).…”

Factors affecting the leadership effectiveness of hospital managers: A systematized review

“…In the literature of the past studies, there is little information on leadership effectiveness in the field of health and treatment ( 11 ). According to Bass et al in 2009, weakness in selection and employment has resulted in lack of effective leaders in health and treatment organizations, especially hospitals ( 12 ).…”