Measurement of Indoor Air Pollution in Bhutanese Households during Winter: An Implication of Different Fuel Uses

Abstract

Measurements of indoor air pollution in Bhutanese households were conducted in winter with regards to the use of different fuels. These measurements were taken in Thimphu, Bhutan, for PM1, PM2.5, PM10, CO, temperature, air pressure and relative humidity in houses and offices with various fuels used for heaters and classified as the hospital, NEC, kerosene, LPG and firewood. The objective of this study was to measure the pollutant concentrations from different fuel uses and to understand their relationship to the different fuel uses and meteorological data using a time series and statistical analysis. The results revealed that the average values for each pollutant for the categories of the hospital, NEC, kerosene, LPG and firewood were as follows: CO (ppm) were 6.50 ± 5.16, 3.65 ± 1.42, 31.04 ± 18.17, 33.93 ± 26.41, 13.92 ± 17.58, respectively; PM2.5 (μg·m−3) were 7.24 ± 4.25, 4.72 ± 0.71, 6.01 ± 3.28, 5.39 ± 2.62, 18.31 ± 11.92, respectively; PM10 (μg·m−3) was 25.44 ± 16.06, 10.61 ± 4.39, 11.68 ± 6.36, 22.13 ± 9.95, 28.66 ± 16.35, respectively. Very coarse particles of PM10 were identified by outdoor infiltration for the hospital, NEC, kerosene and LPG that could be explained by the stable atmospheric conditions enhancing accumulation of ambient air pollutions during the measurements. In addition, high concentrations of CO from kerosene, LPG and firewood were found to be mainly from indoor fuel combustion. Firewood was found to the most polluting fuel for particulate matter concentrations. For the relationships of PM and meteorological data (Temp, RH and air pressure), they were well explained by linear regression while those for CO and the meteorological data, they were well explained by polynomial regression. Since around 40% of houses in Thimphu, Bhutan, use firewood for heating, it is recommended that ventilation should be improved by opening doors and windows in houses with firewood heaters to help prevent exposure to high concentrations of PM1, PM2.5, and PM10.

A Study of the Differential Impact of Macro-Urban Development on Residential Indoor Air Pollution

“…At the same time, Changchun's location in a bitterly cold region and the poor ventilation of homes in winter also contribute to high indoor pollution. (Kanabkaew, 2021).…”

“…It was also found that indoor air pollution was more prevalent in classrooms with many students in the lower grades, taking into account the building layout (Abdel-Salam and Mahmoud, 2017). In some areas, fuel-based heaters are used for heating in winter, which undoubtedly aggravates indoor air pollution (Kanabkaew, 2021), and among the various types of fuel, firewood and kerosene contribute more to indoor PM2.5 (Isley et al, 2018). Similarly, outdoor air pollution contamination shows an upward trend during winter (Vladimíra, et al, 2021;Zhang, et al, 2022).…”

Indoor Air Quality among the Rural Community of Bhutan

“…Benzene is a genotoxic carcinogen, and no safe level is recommended according to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 9 The legal limits of emissions and exposure to VOCs differ from nation to nation and usually rely on levels set by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). 10 IAP is relevant to health because people spend most of their time indoors.…”

“…Their implications are further complicated, as most communities do not follow the exposure regulations set by the Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA). 9,10 The Annual Health Bulletin states that acute respiratory disease (ARI) has been one of the top ten diseases in Bhutan over the last five years. 11 However, there is no or limited study assessing the correlation between air pollution and the occurrence of respiratory diseases.…”