Measuring gender differences: The expressive dimension and critique of androgyny scales

Gill, Sandra K.; Stockard, Jean; Johnson, Miriam M.; Williams, Suzanne

doi:10.1007/bf00288142

Cited by 126 publications

(56 citation statements)

References 34 publications

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“…Eschholz et al aggressive), intellectual masculine (achievement oriented, intelligent, responsible), traditional feminine (domestic, emotional, sensitive), romantic feminine ( irtatious, romantic) and manipulative feminine (deceitful, untrustworthy, manipulative). We were not surprised to nd more than one distinctly masculine and feminine factor given that several authors have explored underlying dimensions or types of gender characteristics within masculinity and femininity (Gill et al 1987;Doss and Hopkins 1998) and others have discussed multiple forms of gender (Messerschmidt 1993;Connell 1995;Sparks 1996;Cavendar 1999). In general, the masculine and feminine factors did not contradict past gender divisions found using both BEM and PAQ and other gender measures.…”

mentioning

confidence: 43%

“…Instead coders relied on their assessments of traits based on the behavior and appearance of the lm characters, rather than their overall impression of a character's masculinity or femininity. Additionally, many of the criticisms of both BEM and PAQ scales point out that gender should not be measured as one scale (Gill et al 1987). For this reason, rather than creating a continuum where masculinity and femininity are included on the same scale, we use factor analysis to explore the possibility of distinct masculine and feminine variables.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Although individual items were taken from these indexes we did not use these speci c measures. While there has been much criticism of both BEM and PAQ gender scales due to their reliance on character traits rather than attitudes and the concept of androgyny rather than multiple forms of masculinity and femininity (Gill, Stockard, Johnson, and Williams 1987), we selected items from these scales because they are measurable in a reliable manner, depend on character traits and attributes rather than feelings, and because, using factor analysis, multiple aspects of masculinity and femininity can be explored. Speci cally, gender measures are normally based on self-reported characteristics, but given that this study involved a content analysis of lms it was impossible to measure a character's attitude or perceptions.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Symbolic Reality Bites: Women and Racial/Ethnic Minorities in Modern Film

Eschholz¹,

Bufkin²,

Long³

2002

Sociological Spectrum

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Criticisms of mass media productions often include a discussion of how women and minorities are systematicall y excluded and=or relegated to minor roles, or roles that match traditional stereotypes. These types of portrayals are important factors in the social construction of reality among the general public, and therefore may perpetuate racism and sexism on a larger scale. Using a content analysis of fifty popular films in 1996 the present study explores the demographic composition of the leading actresses and actors. The goal is to gauge the strength of female and minority presence and to provide an assessment of character representations through an analysis of labor force participation , sex-roles of occupation, prestige of occupation, and gender. Findings indicate that although both women and minorities have made some advancement in their film portrayals, compared to earlier studies, they still are under-represented in leading roles in Hollywood, and their portrayals are often consistent with traditional stereotypes.

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mentioning

confidence: 43%

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 1 more Smart Citation

Symbolic Reality Bites: Women and Racial/Ethnic Minorities in Modern Film

Eschholz¹,

Bufkin²,

Long³

2002

Sociological Spectrum

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“…Masculinity and femininity represent independent dimensions of a person's gender schema (Bem 1981a) that coexist within an individual (Gill et al 1987). People vary in the degree to which they identify as masculine and feminine (Bem 1981a), so men are not necessarily always dominated by masculine self-concepts, nor are women dominated by feminine self-concepts.…”

Section: Sex Role Orientation-masculinity and Femininitymentioning

confidence: 99%

Masculinity and Cognitive Age Perception: An Examination of their Relationship and Implications for Advertising Persuasion

Chang

2009

Sex Roles

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This paper explores whether gender and sex role orientation, in terms of masculinity and femininity, may be associated with older cognitive age among young people. It predicts that masculinity should be associated with an older cognitive age. Two surveys (N=254 respondents aged 18-22 years and N=327 respondents aged 18-55 years), conducted in Taiwan, generally support this prediction. Moreover, this study predicts that masculinity influences people's responses to media information that contains age cues, such as ads featuring models of various ages. The findings of another experiment (N=141 respondents) in Taiwan show that young participants who are more masculine like relatively older models to a greater degree, and the degree to which they like the model influences their attitudes toward the advertised brand.

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“…Some psychologies believe that masculinity and femininity may vary within an individual regardless of biological sex (Gill et al, 1987). Bem (1974) proposed that a person can be masculine, feminine, undifferentiated or "androgynous" as an indicator of the difference between his or her endorsement of masculine and feminine personality characteristics.…”

Section: Gender Identitymentioning

confidence: 99%