Measuring surface gravity waves using a Kinect sensor

Toselli, F.; Lillo, F. De; Onorato, Miguel; Boffetta, G.

doi:10.1016/j.euromechflu.2018.08.017

Cited by 7 publications

(6 citation statements)

References 12 publications

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“…In addition to coded light 48 , other depth sensing technologies have been used to map the water surface including scanning lidar 49 , stereo imaging 50 , polarimetric imaging 51 , and ultrasonic sensing 52 . A future implementation of our system toward deployment in open waters may utilize one, or a combination of, these techniques to map the surface of water.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Multi-modal sensor fusion towards three-dimensional airborne sonar imaging in hydrodynamic conditions

et al. 2023

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Analogous to how aerial imagery of above-ground environments transformed our understanding of the earth’s landscapes, remote underwater imaging systems could provide us with a dramatically expanded view of the ocean. However, maintaining high-fidelity imaging in the presence of ocean surface waves is a fundamental bottleneck in the real-world deployment of these airborne underwater imaging systems. In this work, we introduce a sensor fusion framework which couples multi-physics airborne sonar imaging with a water surface imager. Accurately mapping the water surface allows us to provide complementary multi-modal inputs to a custom image reconstruction algorithm, which counteracts the otherwise detrimental effects of a hydrodynamic water surface. Using this methodology, we experimentally demonstrate three-dimensional imaging of an underwater target in hydrodynamic conditions through a lab-based proof-of-concept, which marks an important milestone in the development of robust, remote underwater sensing systems.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Multi-modal sensor fusion towards three-dimensional airborne sonar imaging in hydrodynamic conditions

et al. 2023

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“…The KV1 sensor shows more scattered perceived depths, which suggests that it may not be very reliable soon after the solution is allowed to rest. Previous studies have used KV1 [ 40 , 42 , 43 ], however, these results would suggest that KV2 is more reliable when there is a chance of TiO 2 settlement. These data demonstrate two key findings: (1) KV2 again shows a more stable response than KV1; (2) there is a decrease in measured depth over time, meaning that fluid should be continuously mixed (perhaps by turbulence in the case of a turbulent flow) in order to maintain accuracy.…”

Section: Sensor Accuracy and Minimum Colourant Concentrationmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…While KV1 approached the correct value more quickly, neither sensor showed a reliable measurement until after a concentration of 0.01% by mass. Previous studies did not examine the accuracy of measurement as a function of TiO 2 concentration [ 40 , 42 , 43 ], and did not state the TiO 2 concentration used, so it is impossible to know whether those measurements were collected with an appropriate amount of TiO 2 . Martinez-Aranda et al [ 41 ] stated a TiO 2 concentration of 1.2%, which Figure 8 shows to be approximately 100 times greater than that which is necessary.…”

Section: Sensor Accuracy and Minimum Colourant Concentrationmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Nichols and Rubinato [ 39 ] first presented an initial examination of the use of Kinect sensors for low-cost 3D measurements of flowing water surfaces, and other studies have since applied the same technique [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 ]. While the popularity of using Kinect sensors for hydraulic experiments is growing, more research is needed to explore this potential and limitations of Kinect technology under multiple hydraulic and experimental conditions.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Optimal Use of Titanium Dioxide Colourant to Enable Water Surfaces to Be Measured by Kinect Sensors

Nichols

Rubinato

Cho

et al. 2020

Sensors

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Recent studies have sought to use Microsoft Kinect sensors to measure water surface shape in steady flows or transient flow processes. They have typically employed a white colourant, usually titanium dioxide (TiO2), in order to make the surface opaque and visible to the infrared-based sensors. However, the ability of Kinect Version 1 (KV1) and Kinect Version 2 (KV2) sensors to measure the deformation of ostensibly smooth reflective surfaces has never been compared, with most previous studies using a V1 sensor with no justification. Furthermore, the TiO2 has so far been used liberally and indeterminately, with no consideration as to the type of TiO2 to use, the optimal proportion to use or the effect it may have on the very fluid properties being measured. This paper examines the use of anatase TiO2 with two generations of the Microsoft Kinect sensor. Assessing their performance for an ideal flat surface, it is shown that surface data obtained using the V2 sensor is substantially more reliable. Further, the minimum quantity of colourant to enable reliable surface recognition is discovered (0.01% by mass). A stability test shows that the colourant has a strong tendency to settle over time, meaning the fluid must remain well mixed, having serious implications for studies with low Reynolds number or transient processes such as dam breaks. Furthermore, the effect of TiO2 concentration on fluid properties is examined. It is shown that previous studies using concentrations in excess of 1% may have significantly affected the viscosity and surface tension, and thus the surface behaviour being measured. It is therefore recommended that future studies employ the V2 sensor with an anatase TiO2 concentration of 0.01%, and that the effects of TiO2 on the fluid properties are properly quantified before any TiO2-Kinect-derived dataset can be of practical use, for example, in validation of numerical models or in physical models of hydrodynamic processes.

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“…However, the reflectivity of the air/water interface is low (approx. 2% reflected [15]), and previous attempts using depth sensors with active illumination have shown that they typically require the addition of dye to the water [16]. Furthermore, techniques based on indirect ToF have difficulties dealing with multi-path returns [17], which is a problem for laboratory-based experiments where an additional return signal is expected from the basin floor.…”

Section: Background and Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A novel contactless technique to measure water waves using a single photon avalanche diode detector array

et al. 2021

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Commonly deployed measurement systems for water waves are intrusive and measure a limited number of parameters. This results in difficulties in inferring detailed sea state information while additionally subjecting the system to environmental loading. Optical techniques offer a non-intrusive alternative, yet documented systems suffer a range of problems related to usability and performance. Here, we present experimental data obtained from a 256 × 256 Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) detector array used to measure water waves in a laboratory facility. 12 regular wave conditions are used to assess performance. Picosecond resolution time-of-flight measurements are obtained, without the use of dye, over an area of the water surface and processed to provide surface elevation data. The SPAD detector array is installed 0.487 m above the water surface and synchronized with a pulsed laser source with a wavelength of 532 nm and mean power <1 mW. Through analysis of the experimental results, and with the aid of an optical model, we demonstrate good performance up to a limiting steepness value, ka , of 0.11. Through this preliminary proof-of-concept study, we highlight the capability for SPAD-based systems to measure water waves within a given field-of-view simultaneously, while raising potential solutions for improving performance.

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Measuring surface gravity waves using a Kinect sensor

Cited by 7 publications

References 12 publications

Multi-modal sensor fusion towards three-dimensional airborne sonar imaging in hydrodynamic conditions

Multi-modal sensor fusion towards three-dimensional airborne sonar imaging in hydrodynamic conditions

Optimal Use of Titanium Dioxide Colourant to Enable Water Surfaces to Be Measured by Kinect Sensors

A novel contactless technique to measure water waves using a single photon avalanche diode detector array

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