“…The tensile properties (UTS, YS and percentage elongation) of the interface are slightly lower than Inconel 825 and SS316L. This may be due to the low heat input and faster cooling rates of the CMT-WAAM process that provides less time for elements such as Mo and Cr to diffuse, resulting in partial mixing 25 .…”
Section: Resultsmentioning
confidence: 94%
“…Each layer is built to a height of 4 mm. Based on our previous study 25 , the variables in the CMT-WAAM process have been selected (Table 2 ). Figure 1 As-built wall showing ( a ) height ( b ) width ( c ) thickness.…”
Section: Methodsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…According to the ASTM E-399 standard, the terminal pre-cracking force (P f ) used to pre-crack the specimen is calculated using the Eq. ( 1 ) 25 . where S—loading span (mm), B—specimen thickness (mm), σ y —yield strength, b = W − a o , where W—specimen depth and a o —notch length.…”
This paper presents a novel method that uses the cold metal transfer based wire arc additive manufacturing process to fabricate functionally graded Inconel 825–SS316L walls. The optical micrograph of Inconel 825 exhibits continuous and discontinuous dendritic structures. The SS316L region comprises 5% of δ-ferrite in primary austenitic (γ) dendrites which was confirmed by the Creq/Nieq ratio of 1.305. The functionally graded interface reveals a partially mixed zone with a transition from the elongated dendrites to fine equiaxed dendrites. The tensile properties of the fabricated wall were determined at room temperature using specimens extracted from Inconel 825, SS316L, and the interface regions. The morphology of the tensile tested specimens revealed significant plastic deformation, indicating ductile failure. The fracture toughness of the wall was experimentally investigated by employing the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) test. The fracture morphology exhibited a ductile mode of fracture with striations perpendicular to the direction of crack development. Elemental mapping revealed that there was no evidence of elemental segregation on the fractured surfaces, and the elements were uniformly dispersed. The CTOD measures 0.853 mm, 0.873 mm on the Inconel 825 side and the SS316L side respectively. The test results confirm that both the Inconel 825 and SS316L sides have good fracture toughness.
“…The tensile properties (UTS, YS and percentage elongation) of the interface are slightly lower than Inconel 825 and SS316L. This may be due to the low heat input and faster cooling rates of the CMT-WAAM process that provides less time for elements such as Mo and Cr to diffuse, resulting in partial mixing 25 .…”
Section: Resultsmentioning
confidence: 94%
“…Each layer is built to a height of 4 mm. Based on our previous study 25 , the variables in the CMT-WAAM process have been selected (Table 2 ). Figure 1 As-built wall showing ( a ) height ( b ) width ( c ) thickness.…”
Section: Methodsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…According to the ASTM E-399 standard, the terminal pre-cracking force (P f ) used to pre-crack the specimen is calculated using the Eq. ( 1 ) 25 . where S—loading span (mm), B—specimen thickness (mm), σ y —yield strength, b = W − a o , where W—specimen depth and a o —notch length.…”
This paper presents a novel method that uses the cold metal transfer based wire arc additive manufacturing process to fabricate functionally graded Inconel 825–SS316L walls. The optical micrograph of Inconel 825 exhibits continuous and discontinuous dendritic structures. The SS316L region comprises 5% of δ-ferrite in primary austenitic (γ) dendrites which was confirmed by the Creq/Nieq ratio of 1.305. The functionally graded interface reveals a partially mixed zone with a transition from the elongated dendrites to fine equiaxed dendrites. The tensile properties of the fabricated wall were determined at room temperature using specimens extracted from Inconel 825, SS316L, and the interface regions. The morphology of the tensile tested specimens revealed significant plastic deformation, indicating ductile failure. The fracture toughness of the wall was experimentally investigated by employing the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) test. The fracture morphology exhibited a ductile mode of fracture with striations perpendicular to the direction of crack development. Elemental mapping revealed that there was no evidence of elemental segregation on the fractured surfaces, and the elements were uniformly dispersed. The CTOD measures 0.853 mm, 0.873 mm on the Inconel 825 side and the SS316L side respectively. The test results confirm that both the Inconel 825 and SS316L sides have good fracture toughness.
“…The X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique were used to analyse the different phases formed at the interfaces of as-deposited wall. The dissimilar interfaces are found to be very critical due to formation of IMCs and unpredictable metallurgical and mechanical behaviour (Chen et al , 2020; Dharmendra et al , 2020; Mishra et al , 2022; Raj Paul et al , 2023; Senthil et al , 2021). Therefore, during all the metallurgical and mechanical analysis, the area of interest was abridged to the dissimilar interfaces, i.e.…”
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to investigate the deposition of SS–Al transitional wall using the wire arc directed energy deposition (WA-DED) process with a Cu interlayer. This study also aims to analyse the metallographic properties of the SS–Cu and Al–Cu interfaces and their mechanical properties.
Design/methodology/approach
The study used transitional deposition of SS–Al material over each other by incorporating Cu as interlayer between the two. The scanning electron microscope analysis, energy dispersive X-ray analysis, X-ray diffractometer analysis, tensile testing and micro-hardness measurement were performed to investigate the interface characteristics and mechanical properties of the SS–Al transitional wall.
Findings
The study discovered that the WA-DED process with a Cu interlayer worked well for the deposition of SS–Al transitional walls. The formation of solid solutions of Fe–Cu and Fe–Si was observed at the SS–Cu interface rather than intermetallic compounds (IMCs), according to the metallographic analysis. On the other hand, three different IMCs were formed at the Al–Cu interface, namely, Al–Cu, Al2Cu and Al4Cu9. The study also observed the formation of a lamellar structure of Al and Al2Cu at the hypereutectic phase. The mechanical testing revealed that the Al–Cu interface failed without significant deformation, i.e. < 4.73%, indicating the brittleness of the interface.
Originality/value
The study identified the formation of HCP–Fe at the SS–Cu interface, which has not been previously reported in additive manufacturing literature. Furthermore, the study observed the formation of a lamellar structure of Al and Al2Cu phase at the hypereutectic phase, which has not been previously reported in SS–Al transitional wall deposition.
“…MIG-WAAM is merely used to fabricate objects with continuously varying metallurgical properties due to the difficulty in synergistic integration between the secondary wire feeder and the MIG module. However, certain literature can be found on the realization of the objects with stepwise variation in metallurgical properties using MIG-WAAM (Chandrasekaran et al, 2020;Senthil et al, 2021;Ahsan et al, 2021;, Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering frontiersin.org…”
Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) can produce a near-net shape of an object within a short period due to its capability of high deposition rate compared with other metal Additive Manufacturing (AM) processes. The recent developments in the WAAM have increased its efficiency and cost-effectiveness in producing viable products. However, poor surface quality, porosities, residual stresses, distortions, and anisotropic mechanical properties are a few inherent challenges still associated with the WAAM, which necessitates the hybridization of this process. Hybrid-WAAM is a synergic integration of one or more deposition processes, manufacturing processes, layering strategies, raw stock materials, and machine tool kinematics that are fully coupled and affect part quality, functionality, and process performance. This paper comprehensively reviews different levels of hybridization in the WAAM to eliminate its associated challenges. These levels of hybridizations are classified into five categories: hybrid-deposition processes, hybrid-manufacturing processes, hybrid-layering strategies, hybrid-machine tools, and hybrid-raw stock. Furthermore, these levels of hybridization are mapped to eliminate the associated defects/challenges in the WAAM, which will help the readers select an appropriate level of hybridization.
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