Mechanical stresses in fast locomotion of buffalo (Syncews coffer) and elephant (Loxodonta africana)

Alexander, R. McNeill; Maloiy, G. M. O.; Hunter, Bárbara; Jayes, A. S.; Nturibi, J.

doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1979.tb03956.x

Cited by 126 publications

(79 citation statements)

References 12 publications

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“…As Gambaryan (1974) also noted, elephants have extraordinarily rigid bodies; hence, we expect that our assumption that the body is effectively rigid is more justifiable for them than for most other animals. The second gait of elephants could be called an amble, intermediate gait or run (Muybridge 1899;Gambaryan 1974;Alexander et al 1979;Ahn et al 2004;Schmitt et al 2006), and raises the question of whether gaits may be better defined by individual limb dynamics (e.g. vaulting or bouncing of particular limbs) rather than whole-body CM dynamics (Biewener 2006;Biknevicius & Reilly 2006).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Even at moderately fast speeds, elephants hold their legs relatively straight when on the ground, with estimated strain levels in lower leg bones similar to those of much smaller running animals (Alexander 1977;Alexander et al 1979;Rubin & Lanyon 1984;Biewener & Taylor 1986). But do these fairly straight, although not necessarily completely columnar, limbs obviate the ability to use the limbs in a compliant, bouncing fashion?…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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The three-dimensional locomotor dynamics of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants reveal a smooth gait transition at moderate speed

Ren

Hutchinson

2007

J. R. Soc. Interface.

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We examined whether elephants shift to using bouncing (i.e. running) mechanics at any speed. To do this, we measured the three-dimensional centre of mass (CM) motions and torso rotations of African and Asian elephants using a novel multisensor method. Hundreds of continuous stride cycles were recorded in the field. African and Asian elephants moved very similarly. Near the mechanically and metabolically optimal speed (a Froude number (Fr) of 0.09), an inverted pendulum mechanism predominated. With increasing speed, the locomotor dynamics quickly but continuously became less like vaulting and more like bouncing. Our mechanical energy analysis of the CM suggests that at a surprisingly slow speed (approx. 2.2 m s K1 , Fr 0.25), the hindlimbs exhibited bouncing, not vaulting, mechanics during weight support. We infer that a gait transition happens at this relatively slow speed: elephants begin using their compliant hindlimbs like pogo sticks to some extent to drive the body, bouncing over their relatively stiff, vaulting forelimbs. Hence, they are not as rigid limbed as typically characterized for graviportal animals, and use regular walking as well as at least one form of running gait.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The three-dimensional locomotor dynamics of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants reveal a smooth gait transition at moderate speed

Ren

Hutchinson

2007

J. R. Soc. Interface.

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“…African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) represent the upper limit of body mass in extant terrestrial mammals, and large bulls can weigh up to 7500kg (Nowak, 1999). Although physiological measurements on elephants are technically challenging, experiments using well-trained captive elephants allow modeling of the biomechanical and energetic characteristics of locomotion in the largest terrestrial mammals (Alexander et al, 1979;Langman et al, 1995;Hutchinson et al, 2003;Hutchinson et al, 2006;Ren and Hutchinson, 2008;Ren et al, 2010;Genin et al, 2010).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Minimum cost of transport in Asian elephants: do we really need a bigger elephant?

Langman

Rowe

Roberts

et al. 2012

Journal of Experimental Biology

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SUMMARYBody mass is the primary determinant of an animalʼs energy requirements. At their optimum walking speed, large animals have lower mass-specific energy requirements for locomotion than small ones. In animals ranging in size from 0.8g (roach) to 260kg (zebu steer), the minimum cost of transport (COT min ) decreases with increasing body size roughly as COT min ϰbody mass (M b ) -0.316±0.023 (95% CI). Typically, the variation of COT min with body mass is weaker at the intraspecific level as a result of physiological and geometric similarity within closely related species. The interspecific relationship estimates that an adult elephant, with twice the body mass of a mid-sized elephant, should be able to move its body approximately 23% cheaper than the smaller elephant. We sought to determine whether adult Asian and sub-adult African elephants follow a single quasi-intraspecific relationship, and extend the interspecific relationship between COT min and body mass to 12-fold larger animals. Physiological and possibly geometric similarity between adult Asian elephants and sub-adult African elephants caused body mass to have a no effect on COT min (COT min ϰM b 0.007±0.455). The COT min in elephants occurred at walking speeds between 1.3 and ~1.5ms . The quasi-intraspecific relationship between body mass and COT min among elephants caused the interspecific relationship to underestimate COT min in larger elephants.

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“…A column-shaped, extended limb integrates all structures of the locomotor apparatus (Howell; Gambaryan & Hardin). Maximum body weight is supported by the larger forelimbs (60 %) (Alexander et al, 1979), the hind limbs are also well-matched to weight bearing (Weissengruber & Forstenpointner). The shoulder, elbow and wrist joints of elephant are stacked one above the other to hold up its heavy bulk similar to an architectural column; the downward scapula is in line with the stout humerus and ulna.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Macroanatomy of the Bones of Thoracic Limb of an Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus)

et al. 2016

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Int. J. Morphol., 34(3):909-917, 2016. SUMMARY:Bones of forelimb were studied from a prepared skeleton of an adult female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in Anatomy Museum of Chittagong Veterinary and Animal Sciences University to understand the morphological form and structure of Asian elephant forelimb. The angle was approximately 123º between caudal border of scapula and caudal border of humerus. The scapula, humerus and bones of the antebrachium (particularly the ulna) were massive bones. The bones of manus were the short and relatively small. The dorsal border of scapula extended from the level of proximal extremity of first rib to the middle of the 6 th rib. Ventral angle of scapula articulated with humerus by elongated shaped glenoid cavity (cavitas glenoidalis) of scapula and head of humerus (caput humeri). The major tubercle (tuberculum majus) of humerus was situated laterally to the head, which had smaller cranial part with large caudal part and extended cranially to the head. The crest of minor tubercle (tuberculum minus) was present as the rough line on the mediocaudal surface of humerus that ends in a slight depressed or elevated area, known as teres major tuberosity (tuberositas teres major). The lateral supracondyler crest (crista supra condylaris lateralis) at the caudal surface of the shaft limit the musculo-spiral groove in body of humerus. The radius and ulna are twin bones of forearm and the attachment between ulna and radius occurs in such a way, the radius articulates craniomedially with the ulna in the proximal part. But the shaft spirals laterally over the cranial surface of the ulna to articulate distally with the medial aspect of the ulna. There were 8 carpal bones, 5 metacarpal bones and 5 digits. The comparative size of the proximal and distal raw of carpal bones were ulnar carpal > radial > intermediate > accessory carpal and IV > III > II > I respectively. The gradual lengths of the metacarpal bones were III > IV > II > V > I. Digits I and V were vertical and digit II, III and IV were horizontal.

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Mechanical stresses in fast locomotion of buffalo (Syncews coffer) and elephant (Loxodonta africana)

Cited by 126 publications

References 12 publications

The three-dimensional locomotor dynamics of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants reveal a smooth gait transition at moderate speed

The three-dimensional locomotor dynamics of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants reveal a smooth gait transition at moderate speed

Minimum cost of transport in Asian elephants: do we really need a bigger elephant?

Macroanatomy of the Bones of Thoracic Limb of an Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus)

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