Mechanisms of killing of Bacillus subtilis spores by hypochlorite and chlorine dioxide

Young, S.B.; Setlow, Peter

doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.2003.01960.x

Cited by 257 publications

(284 citation statements)

References 51 publications

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“…Rapid inactivation of Bacillus spores with oxidizing biocides is largely dependent on the agent's ability to degrade the spore coats (4,13). Once the coats are penetrated, the inner membrane and cell wall can be damaged, causing hydration of the cell core, leading to death (29). The hydrophobic nature of the exosporium may also contribute to biocide resistance (28).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis Spores by Liquid Biocides in the Presence of Food Residue

Hilgren

Swanson

Diez-Gonzalez

et al. 2007

Appl Environ Microbiol

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Biocide inactivation of Bacillus anthracis spores in the presence of food residues after a 10-min treatment time was investigated. Spores of nonvirulent Bacillus anthracis strains 7702, ANR-1, and 9131 were mixed with water, flour paste, whole milk, or egg yolk emulsion and dried onto stainless-steel carriers. The carriers were exposed to various concentrations of peroxyacetic acid, sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), or hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) for 10 min at 10, 20, or 30°C, after which time the survivors were quantified. The relationship between peroxyacetic acid concentration, H 2 O 2 concentration, and spore inactivation followed a sigmoid curve that was accurately described using a four-parameter logistic model. At 20°C, the minimum concentrations of peroxyacetic acid, H 2 O 2 , and NaOCl (as total available chlorine) predicted to inactivate 6 log 10 CFU of B. anthracis spores with no food residue present were 1.05, 23.0, and 0.78%, respectively. At 10°C, sodium hypochlorite at 5% total available chlorine did not inactivate more than 4 log 10 CFU. The presence of the food residues had only a minimal effect on peroxyacetic acid and H 2 O 2 sporicidal efficacy, but the efficacy of sodium hypochlorite was markedly inhibited by whole-milk and egg yolk residues. Sodium hypochlorite at 5% total available chlorine provided no greater than a 2-log 10 CFU reduction when spores were in the presence of egg yolk residue. This research provides new information regarding the usefulness of peroxygen biocides for B. anthracis spore inactivation when food residue is present. This work also provides guidance for adjusting decontamination procedures for food-soiled and cold surfaces.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis Spores by Liquid Biocides in the Presence of Food Residue

Hilgren

Swanson

Diez-Gonzalez

et al. 2007

Appl Environ Microbiol

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“…This cotE spore coat defect is also indicated by their increased sensitivity to lysozyme and hypochlorite, as compared with that of wild-type spores (Table 1) (5,7,17,19). To obtain further insight into the role of the spore coat in resistance to predation, spores of strains with mutations affecting the spore coat to different degrees were examined.…”

Section: Ingestion and Digestion Of Spores Of B Subtilis Strains Witmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The coat does protect against some, although not all chemicals, perhaps by serving as a reactive armor that detoxifies harmful chemicals before they damage essential components located further within the spore (1,7,19). However, it seems unlikely that the complex spore coat would have evolved solely to allow the dormant spore to resist toxic chemicals.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

The Bacillus subtilis spore coat provides “eat resistance” during phagocytic predation by the protozoan Tetrahymena thermophila

Klobutcher

Ragkousi

Setlow

2005

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

122

124

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Bacillus spores are highly resistant to many environmental stresses, owing in part to the presence of multiple ''extracellular'' layers. Although the role of some of these extracellular layers in resistance to particular stresses is known, the function of one of the outermost layers, the spore coat, is not completely understood. This study sought to determine whether the spore coat plays a role in resistance to predation by the ciliated protozoan Tetrahymena, which uses phagocytosis to ingest and degrade other microorganisms. Wild-type dormant spores of Bacillus subtilis were efficiently ingested by the protozoan Tetrahymena thermophila but were neither digested nor killed. However, spores with various coat defects were killed and digested, leaving only an outer shell termed a rind, and supporting the growth of Tetrahymena. A similar rind was generated when coat-defective spores were treated with lysozyme alone. The sensitivity of spores with different coat defects to predation by T. thermophila paralleled the spores' sensitivities to lysozyme. Spore killing by T. thermophila was by means of lytic enzymes within the protozoal phagosome, not by initial spore germination followed by killing. These findings suggest that a major function of the coat of spores of Bacillus species is to protect spores against predation. We also found that indigestible rinds were generated even from spores in which cross-linking of coat proteins was greatly reduced, implying the existence of a coat structure that is highly resistant to degradative enzymes.Bacillus spore ͉ phagocytosis ͉ spore resistance

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“…Following the 9-11 attacks in the USA, ClO 2 gas was used to treat the Bacillus anthracis spores detected in certain government buildings and on the exterior of mail packages addressed to a small number of government institutions (EPA, 2006;Canter et al, 2005). Finally, various studies have demonstrated the efficiency of ClO 2 in deactivating Bacillus endospores (surrogates for B. anthracis spores) (Buttner et al, 2001;Cortezzo et al, 2004;Young and Setlow, 2003).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Disinfection efficiency of chlorine dioxide gas in student cafeterias in Taiwan

Hsu

Huang

2012

Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association

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In Taiwan, the food and drink requirements of students and faculty members are met by student cafeterias. The air quality within these cafeterias should satisfy the guidelines laid down by the Taiwan Environmental Protection Agency (Taiwan EPA). Accordingly, this study performed an experimental investigation into the efficiency of two different gaseous chlorine dioxide (ClO 2 ) treatments in disinfecting a local student cafeteria, namely a single, one-off application and a twice-daily application. In both cases, the ClO 2 was applied using strategically placed aerosol devices. The air quality before and after disinfection was evaluated by measuring the bioaerosol levels of bacteria and fungi. Moreover, a stepwise discriminant analysis method was applied for predicting the residual concentrations of bacteria and fungi, as a function of the environmental parameters and the ClO 2 concentration. The experimental results showed that the average background levels of bacteria and fungi prior to ClO 2 disinfection were 972.5 AE 623.6 and 1534.1 AE 631.8 colony-forming units (CFU)/m 3 , respectively. A single ClO 2 application was found to reduce the bacterial and fungal concentration levels by as much as 65% and 30%, respectively. By contrast, a twice-daily ClO 2 application was found to reduce the bacterial and fungal concentration levels by as much as 74% and 38%, respectively. The statistical analysis results showed that the residual bacterial concentration level was determined primarily by the number of individuals present in the cafeteria, the temperature, and the ClO 2 concentration, whereas the residual fungal concentration level was determined mainly by the temperature, the total number of suspended particles, and the ClO 2 concentration. Thus, the integrated results suggest that the air quality guidelines prescribed by the Taiwan EPA for student cafeteria can best be achieved by applying ClO 2 twice daily using an appropriate deployment of aerosol devices.Implications: ClO 2 gas can destroy all manner of microorganisms, including bacteria, spores, fungi, viruses, and even protozoans, in indoor environments. Moreover, it is popularly known that bioaerosols are able to grow and propagate on a wide variety of building materials and indoor surfaces. Thus, through optimal ClO 2 disinfection methodology, the indoor microbial contaminants can be decreased and the residual concentrations of bacteria and fungi as a function of the environmental parameters and the ClO 2 concentration can be predicted via some statistical techniques.

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Mechanisms of killing of Bacillus subtilis spores by hypochlorite and chlorine dioxide

Cited by 257 publications

References 51 publications

Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis Spores by Liquid Biocides in the Presence of Food Residue

Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis Spores by Liquid Biocides in the Presence of Food Residue

The Bacillus subtilis spore coat provides “eat resistance” during phagocytic predation by the protozoan Tetrahymena thermophila

Disinfection efficiency of chlorine dioxide gas in student cafeterias in Taiwan

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