Mental Illness Stigma: Limitations of Crisis Intervention Team Training

Abstract

As police departments in the United States strive to improve their capacity to effectively engage individuals with mental illness (IMI), Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) training has become increasingly common. Limited empirical work has studied the effectiveness of CIT, and available studies demonstrate split evidence on the effectiveness of the approach. Variation in previous findings may indicate that CIT inadequately addresses key factors that create challenges for officers when engaging IMI, such as mental illness stigma. Survey data collected from 185 officers were analyzed to assess whether mental illness stigma affects officers’ perceptions of preparedness for engaging IMI beyond CIT training itself. Findings suggest that although there are few differences in perceptions of preparedness between officers who have completed CIT training and those who have not completed CIT training, variation in levels of mental illness stigma explain differences in officers’ perceptions of preparedness to engage IMI. Policy recommendations are discussed.

Crisis Intervention Team Training in a Correctional Setting: Examining Compliance, Mental Health Referrals, and Use of Force

“…Scholars have hypothesized that the tools provided by CIT training increase officers’ ability to communicate and reduce their reliance on force and arrest (Haigh et al, 2020; Watson et al, 2010), especially when interacting with persons with mental illness. In line with this, Skeem and Bibeau (2008) found that CIT officers in Las Vegas, Nevada, used force in only 15% of the 189 incidents in which a risk of violence was observed; however, their study did not include a comparison group.…”

“…Third, we are not aware of any research that examines the relationship between CIT training and suspect compliance. However, based on the training’s focus on verbal communication and de-escalation strategies, as well as the evidence in prior research that the training may reduce the need to use force (Center for Health Policy, Planning and Research, 2007; Compton et al, 2015; Haigh et al, 2020; Skeem & Bibeau, 2008; Watson et al, 2010), we expect CIT training of correctional staff to be related to higher compliance during incidents. CIT officers may use strategies they learned in training right away as an interaction with an incarcerated person begins or as directives are being given, or they may use them as a response to initial noncompliance.…”

“…Rates of mental illness among incarcerated people are significantly higher than in the general population (Al-Rousan et al, 2017). For example, 33% of males and 50% of females housed in the Minnesota Department of Corrections (MnDOC) have a diagnosed mental illness and/or receive mental health services, compared with approximately 25% of the general population (Haigh et al, 2020).…”

“…Research on the effectiveness of CIT training shows marked improvement in knowledge of mental health issues, perceptions of the mentally ill, and self-reported confidence in responding to situations involving persons with mental illness (Compton et al, 2014a(Compton et al, , 2006Ellis, 2014;Hacker & Horan, 2019;Haigh et al, 2020;Hanafi et al, 2008;Kohrt et al, 2015;Ritter et al, 2010;Tulley & Smith, 2015; but for null results, see Compton et al, 2015). Furthermore, officers trained by CIT-like programs are better able to direct individuals with mental illnesses to the appropriate medical or social services by engaging in medical transports or making referrals and diversions to service providers (Bratina et al, 2018;Compton et al, 2008Compton et al, , 2014bHeilbrun et al, 2012;Kohrt et al, 2015;Lattimore et al, 2003;Ritter et al, 2011;Scantlebury et al, 2017;Strauss et al, 2005;Tyuse, 2012;Watson et al, 2010).…”

Cui Bono? Assessing Community Engagement in San Francisco Community Benefit Agreements

“…Aside from issues surrounding job mobility, manifold other problems contribute to the intransigence of community blight that defy a quick fix, especially homelessness, drug addiction, and mental illness. The mentally ill inhabiting the area [41] require the expertise of trained professionals; [41] even police who are called to deal with troubled residents find this population to be especially challenging and fraught [42][43][44]. The move toward the deprivation of liberty of the mentally ill reveals the intractable nature of these problems and speaks to the extremity of the hurdles found in blighted communities.…”