Metabolic Syndrome: A Narrative Review from the Oxidative Stress to the Management of Related Diseases

Abstract

Metabolic syndrome (MS) is a growing disorder affecting thousands of people worldwide, especially in industrialised countries, increasing mortality. Oxidative stress, hyperglycaemia, insulin resistance, inflammation, dysbiosis, abdominal obesity, atherogenic dyslipidaemia and hypertension are important factors linked to MS clusters of different pathologies, such as diabesity, cardiovascular diseases and neurological disorders. All biochemical changes observed in MS, such as dysregulation in the glucose and lipid metabolism, immune response, endothelial cell function and intestinal microbiota, promote pathological bridges between metabolic syndrome, diabesity and cardiovascular and neurodegenerative disorders. This review aims to summarise metabolic syndrome’s involvement in diabesity and highlight the link between MS and cardiovascular and neurological diseases. A better understanding of MS could promote a novel strategic approach to reduce MS comorbidities.

Recent Advances in the Therapeutic Potential of Carotenoids in Preventing and Managing Metabolic Disorders

“…Although each factor plays a role in the progression of MetS-related diseases, the precise mechanisms remain elusive, with oxidative stress being the most frequently implicated. In patients diagnosed with MetS, oxidative stress may arise from mitochondrial and metabolic dysfunction caused by elevated levels of fatty acid or glucose and reduced insulin secretion or decreased levels of antioxidant enzymes in β -cells [ 38 ].…”

Comprehensive Strategies for Metabolic Syndrome: How Nutrition, Dietary Polyphenols, Physical Activity, and Lifestyle Modifications Address Diabesity, Cardiovascular Diseases, and Neurodegenerative Conditions

“…There is a close relationship between obesity and diabetes [ 15 , 67 , 68 ] defined as “diabesity”. Diabesity involves both genetic and environmental factors and manifests as a connection between two metabolic disorders characterized by defects in cellular insulin, whose sensibility is primarily attributed to insulin resistance and insulin deficiency [ 15 , 69 ].…”

“…A microbial intestinal imbalance has been associated with diabesity [ 15 ]. The gut microbiota participates in the metabolism, influencing the energy balance, glucose metabolism, and low-grade inflammation associated with obesity [ 107 ].…”

“…The imbalance between the generation of free radicals/oxidants and antioxidant defenses leads to oxidative stress, disruption of redox signaling, and molecular damage, contributing to various diseases [ 8 , 12 ]. Many studies suggest a strong association between high oxidative stress and MS [ 13 , 14 , 15 ] and its related conditions such as obesity [ 15 , 16 ], diabetes [ 17 ], cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases [ 15 , 18 ], as well as aging processes [ 12 ]. Antioxidant systems, including endogenous antioxidant defense mechanisms along with exogenous antioxidants such as polyphenols from diet sources, act by blocking the formation of free radicals or interrupting the propagation of the free radical chain reaction [ 19 ].…”

Exploring the Antioxidative Effects of Ginger and Cinnamon: A Comprehensive Review of Evidence and Molecular Mechanisms Involved in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) and Other Oxidative Stress-Related Disorders

“…The increase in the level of adipokines (leptin), cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6), and non-esterified fatty acids in obese patients can block the action of insulin and help develop insulin resistance, which leads to T2DM. Visceral obesity, as one of the serious problems of women with PCOS, has been shown to reduce plasma levels of SOD and GPx [10].…”