Metabolite Changes in Indonesian Tempe Production from Raw Soybeans to Over-Fermented Tempe

Abstract

Tempe is fermented soybean from Java, Indonesia, that can serve as a functional food due to its high nutritional content and positive impact on health. Although the tempe fermentation process is known to affect its nutrient content, changes in the metabolite profile during tempe production have not been comprehensively examined. Thus, this research applied a metabolomics approach to investigate the metabolite profile in each step of tempe production, from soybean soaking to over-fermentation. Fourteen samples of raw soybeans, i.e., soaked soybeans (24 h), steamed soybeans, fungal fermented soybeans, and over-fermented soybeans (up to 72 h), were collected. Untargeted metabolomics by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC–MS) was used to determine soybean transformations from various fermentation times and identify disparity-related metabolites. The results showed that soybeans samples clustered together on the basis of the different fermentation steps. The results also showed that sugar, sugar alcohol, organic acids, and amino acids, as well as fermentation time, contributed to the soybean metabolite profile transformations. During the fermentation of tempe, sugars and sugar alcohols accumulated at the beginning of the process before gradually decreasing as fermentation progressed. Specifically, at the beginning of the fermentation, gentiobiose, galactinol, and glucarate were accumulated, and several metabolites such as glutamine, 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid, and homocysteine increased along with the progression of fermentation. In addition, notable isoflavones daidzein and genistein increased from 24 h of fermentation until 72 h. This is the first report that provides a complete description of the metabolic profile of the tempe production from soybean soaking to over-fermentation. Through this study, the dynamic changes at each step of tempe production were revealed. This information can be beneficial to the tempe industry for the improvement of product quality based on metabolite profiling.

Tempeh fermentation improves the nutritional and functional characteristics of Jack beans (Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC)

“…Rhizopus mycelia grow on cooked beans and secrete a wide range of enzymes including α-amylase, esterase, cellulase, protease, and β-glucosidase. 5 These enzymes produce chemical and structural changes in the beans, resulting in the production of bioactive peptides, 6 improvement of flavor, 7 decrease of antinutritional factors 8 and modification of the cell wall observed as cell wall damage. 9 Cell wall modification in kidney beans after tempeh fermentation and subsequent mastication has been reported to produce a significant increase in protein digestibility.…”

Mechanism of Action of Isoflavone Derived from Soy-Based Tempeh as an Antioxidant and Breast Cancer Inhibitor via Potential Upregulation of miR-7-5p: A Multimodal Analysis Integrating Pharmacoinformatics and Cellular Studies

“…Tempeh is mostly made up of bioactive peptides and isoflavones, which may help prevent cancer by acting as antioxidants, apoptosing cancer cells, and inhibiting the growth of cancer cells [ 8 ]. Tempeh, a traditional soybean fermentation product, is widely known for its rich nutritional content, including isoflavones and their bioactive compounds [ 9 ]. Phenolic compounds, saponins, phytic acid, and enzyme inhibitors like trypsin and Bowman–Birk inhibitors are associated with soybean anticancer properties; however, isoflavones, soybean phytochemicals with antioxidant properties that can shield human cells from oxidative stress linked to cancer, are the most noteworthy [ 10 , 11 ].…”

Soy-Based Tempeh Rich in Paraprobiotics Properties as Functional Sports Food: More Than a Protein Source

“…As explained above, vegetable protein is no less effective than protein obtained from meat [14,17]. Such vegetable protein can be obtained from tempeh, a traditional food commonly consumed in Indonesia [18,19]. In a study, it was shown that resistance exercise, especially eccentric exercise, causes muscle damage, as evidenced by increasing creatine kinase (CK) levels, muscle soreness, and reduced muscle strength [20].…”