Metals

Outlining Potential Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect to Critical Minerals: Nutritionally Essential Trace Elements and the Rare Earth Elements

“…Experimental data for human cancer due to Cr have been inconclusive because of co-occurring carcinogens [ 13 ]. Biomarkers of exposure include bodily fluid concentrations and exhaled breath condensate; biomarkers of effects include respiratory and skin manifestations, low birth weights, tumors, and oxidative damage [ 28 ]. The mechanisms for cytotoxicity and carcinogenicity by Cr(VI) indicate oxidative deterioration of biological molecules, and decreased levels of protective ascorbic acid and glutathione [ 72 ].…”

“…Manganese is cholestatic in cattle and rodents [ 92 ]. Biomarkers of exposure might be investigated by DMT1 gene expression, Mn efflux transport, as well as inflammatory genes, and cellular responses of apoptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction [ 28 , 85 , 95 ]. Other biomarkers of exposure can include Mn levels in teeth, hair, and blood, but because it is primarily sequestered in tissue and within intracellular compartments, blood concentration may be a poor biomarker [ 28 , 96 ].…”

“…Biomarkers of exposure might be investigated by DMT1 gene expression, Mn efflux transport, as well as inflammatory genes, and cellular responses of apoptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction [ 28 , 85 , 95 ]. Other biomarkers of exposure can include Mn levels in teeth, hair, and blood, but because it is primarily sequestered in tissue and within intracellular compartments, blood concentration may be a poor biomarker [ 28 , 96 ]. Biomarkers of effect include neurological deficits, altered hormonal, reproductive, cardiovascular, dermatological, hematological, learning and memory, immunological responses, and especially brain basal ganglia histopathology [ 28 , 83 , 87 , 95 ].…”

“…Reliable biomarkers along an AOP are sensitive, quantifiable indices of both pollutant bioavailability and early biological responses, often elucidating cause-effect and dose-effect relationships in health risk assessments [ 21 ]. Biomarkers are indicator signals in biological systems that are indicative of effects or exposure to an environmental agent, which may be chemical, physical, or biological [ 28 ]. A biomarker of exposure is the identification of an extraneous substance within the system, or the interactive product between a contaminant and a biological structure [ 21 ].…”