Methods of synthesis and performance improvement of lithium iron phosphate for high rate Li-ion batteries: A review

Nanotechnology for environmentally sustainable electromobility

“…Because of the relatively high environmental impacts associated with the production of LIBs and PEMFCs, the lifetime expectancy and the recyclability of these energy devices are key parameters in determining their lifecycle environmental performance. Several studies have pointed to challenges with PEMFC durability due to degradation in the membrane and catalyst layer during long-term operation [27][28][29] . Battery EVs, on the other hand, generally suffer from limited driving ranges, and whilst larger batteries allow for longer driving ranges, they also cause more production-phase impacts and add weight to the vehicle, thereby increasing electricity consumption during EV operation 30 .…”

“…At present, both PEMFC anodes and cathodes rely on platinum catalysts supported on high surface area carbon (Pt/C), which are costly, scarce 47 and have extremely high environmental implications from platinum extraction 50,51 . In terms of efficient use of this high-impact, non-renewable material, the cathode is the key technological bottleneck as the oxygen reduction reaction occurs five to six orders of magnitude slower than the hydrogen oxidation reaction occurring at the anode 28 , thus greatly limiting the cell power density. Furthermore, the pure platinum catalysts suffer from poisoning from impurities in the hydrogen fuel as well as dissolution and agglomeration, which can drastically shorten the fuel cell lifetime 29,132,133 .…”

“…Synthesis material losses were evaluated based on synthesis protocols available in the literature, as well as synthesis reviews describing environmentally significant aspects [27][28][29][30] . Because bottom-up methods allow for the customized design of reactions and processes at the molecular level and thereby minimizing unwanted waste, it is generally believed that top-down techniques are more wasteproducing than bottom-up techniques 29 .…”

“…Similar to the evaluation of synthesis material losses, energy of nanosynthesis was evaluated based on synthesis protocols and synthesis reviews describing environmentally significant aspects [27][28][29][30] . In some cases, the nanosynthesis method in itself may not be particularly energy demanding, but can require subsequent drying heat for annealing or calcination, which may be significant.…”

“…The hydro-and solvothermal operation temperatures are usually between 100-280 °C 41 for 5-10 hours 28 . Calcination temperatures are lower (e.g.…”