Methods to disinfect and decontaminate SARS-CoV-2: a systematic review of in vitro studies

Abstract

Background: Cleaning is a major control component for outbreaks of infection. However, for the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, there is limited specific guidance regarding the proper disinfection methods that should be used. Methods: We conducted a systematic review of the literature on cleaning, disinfection or decontamination methods in the prevention of SARS-CoV-2. Results: A total of 27 studies were included, reporting a variety of methods with which the effectiveness of interventions were assessed. Virus was inoculated onto different types of material including masks, nasopharyngeal swabs, serum, laboratory plates and simulated saliva, tears or nasal fluid and then interventions were applied in an attempt to eliminate the virus including chemical, ultraviolet (UV) light irradiation, and heat and humidity. At body temperature (37°C) there is evidence that the virus will not be detectable after 2 days but this can be reduced to non-detection at 30 min at 56°C, 15 min at 65°C and 2 min at 98°C. Different experimental methods testing UV light have shown that it can inactivate the virus. Light of 254–365 nm has been used, including simulated sunlight. Many chemical agents including bleach, hand sanitiser, hand wash, soap, ethanol, isopropanol, guandinium thiocynate/t-octylphenoxypolyethoxyethanol, formaldehyde, povidone-iodine, 0.05% chlorhexidine, 0.1% benzalkonium chloride, acidic electrolysed water, Clyraguard copper iodine complex and hydrogen peroxide vapour have been shown to disinfect SARS-CoV-2. Conclusions: Heating, UV light irradiation and chemicals can be used to inactivate SARS-CoV-2 but there is insufficient evidence to support one measure over others in clinical practice.

Ozone for SARS-CoV-2 inactivation on surfaces and in liquid cell culture media

“…In the recent year, a variety of methods have been studied to eliminate SARS-CoV-2 from the environment, including heat sterilisation, chemical disinfection, non-thermal plasma, and ultraviolet irradiation ( Kwok et al, 2021 , Martins et al, 2021 , Volkoff et al, 2021 , Welch et al, 2021 , Oral et al, 2020 , Murata et al, 2021 ). In these studies, the virus was inoculated onto a variety of hard and porous surfaces or in liquids before being exposed to the treatment.…”

“…RH and T) May generate ozone, if not controlled, May present a risk to unprotected skin and eyes Air, water, and surfaces 3-10 mJ/cm 2 ( Raeiszadeh and Adeli, 2020 , Minamikawa et al, 2021 , Kitagawa et al, 2021 ) Non thermal plasma Local disinfection High voltage Reactive species may be toxic if not controlled (e.g. NOx, O 3 ) Limited action in gas phase Surfaces, liquids <20 min exposure time ( Bisag et al, 2020 , Chen et al, 2020 , Capelli et al, 2021 ) Heat treatment Common method of disinfection in an autoclave Not suitable for materials sensitive to heat Not suitable for indoor areas Surfaces, liquids 30 min at 56 o C, <10 min at >70 o C ( Kwok et al, 2021 , Xiling et al, 2021 , Pastorino et al, 2020 ) Sodium hypochlorite (chlorine bleach) Inexpensive Widely available May attack materials, furniture, and electronic equipment Hazardous to the environment Sensitive to pH Laborious to apply over large areas Liquids, surfaces 150 ppm for 5 minutes ( Xiling et al, 2021 , Brown et al, 2021 , Subpiramaniyam, 2021 ) Chlorine dioxide (liquid or gas) Can be produced onsite Stronger disinfectant than sodium hypochlorite Inactivation takes place in wet state only Requires high relative humidity in gas phase Requires unoccupied spaces Can be explosive Liquids, surfaces, and air ~10 mg.min/L in water ( Kaly-Kullai et al, 2...…”

Molecular iodine is not responsible for cytotoxicity in iodophors

“…The global pandemic has induced clinicians to identify agents that that can be used in the oral and nasal cavities [4][5][6][7][8][9]. Use of an I2 disinfectant is logical as (a) iodine has an established anti-viral and antimicrobial activity, (b) there is no evidence that bacteria can develop resistance to I2 [10,11] since it reacts with several functional groups thus providing simultaneous action against multiple molecular targets, (c) I2 is a naturally occurring biomolecule synthesized in the follicular lumen and other iodine concentrating tissues and (d) has a two-hundred-year use history in and on humans.…”

Corona and polio viruses are sensitive to short pulses of W-band gyrotron radiation

“…Thus, decontamination means of surfaces and closed spaces are of need. Current decontamination techniques include UV irradiation, ethylene oxide, vaporized hydrogen peroxide, ozone, moist heat incubation and microwave-generated steam (Kwok et al 2021 ; Choi et al 2021a , b ; Zucker et al 2021 ).…”