Microcystin-LR in Primary Liver Cancers: An Overview

Abstract

The cyanobacterial blooms produced by eutrophic water bodies have become a serious environmental issue around the world. After cellular lysing or algaecide treatment, microcystins (MCs), which are regarded as the most frequently encountered cyanobacterial toxins in fresh water, are released into water. Among all the variants of MCs, MC-LR has been widely studied due to its severe hepatotoxicity. Since 1992, various studies have identified the important roles of MC-LR in the origin and progression of primary liver cancers (PLCs), although few reviews have focused on it. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the major achievements and shortcomings observed in the past few years. Based on the available literature, the mechanisms of how MC-LR induces or promotes PLCs are elucidated in this review. This review aims to enhance our understanding of the role that MC-LR plays in PLCs and provides a rational approach for future applications.

A portable EIS-based biosensor for the detection of microcystin-LR residues in environmental water bodies and simulated body fluids

“…On chronic exposure, traces of MCs have been found in patients' urine and blood serum. [20][21][22] To manage these potential health hazards, the World Health Organization (WHO) has created standards for the permissible levels of these toxins in drinking and recreational water. The safe limit for microcystin-LR (MCLR) in drinking water has been established at 1 μg L −1 (1 part per billion or 1 ppb).…”

Subchronic Microcystin-LR Aggravates Colorectal Inflammatory Response and Barrier Disruption via Raf/ERK Signaling Pathway in Obese Mice

“…So far, more than 270 varieties of MCs have been documented [6]. Microcystin-LR (MC-LR), microcystin-RR (MC-RR), and microcystin-YR (MC-YR) are the most extensively dispersed variants in nature, with MC-LR being the most widely distributed and the most dangerous [7]. Many organs, including the liver, intestines, kidneys, nerves, immunological system, and reproductive system, are harmed by MC-LR when it enters the body via consumption of water or freshwater products [8][9][10][11][12][13].…”

Cyanotoxins Increase Cytotoxicity and Promote Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Progression by Enhancing Cell Steatosis

“…Cyanotoxins have three routes of exposure to humans (1) contact, (2) ingestion, and (3) inhalation of aerosols. Importantly, the daily increase in algal blooms and the release of cyanotoxins into freshwater can threaten animals and humans through contaminated drinking water or the food chain [ 12 , 13 ]. Cyanotoxins cause several adverse health effects such as dermatologic, gastrointestinal, respiratory, and neurologic signs and symptoms.…”

“…Chronic low exposure to MC-LR can occur through drinking contaminated water, direct skin contact, or inhalation [ 18 ]. Because of its severe hepatotoxicity, MC-LR can cause liver diseases including liver cancer, and therefore MC-LR is the most studied microcystin [ 13 ]. The genus Microcystis contains several species including M. aeruginosa which are known to produce several microcystins (MCs) that enhanced toxicity in the kidney, liver, intestine, spleen, and other organs of several fish species [ 4 ], and recent reports suggest that cyanotoxins also affect several human organs such as the brain, stomach, small and large intestine, gut, lungs, kidneys, skin, and liver [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ].…”