“… Fig. 4 Creation of a capillary bed-like structure mimicking native tissue: (A) fabrication of a micro-scale structure using a soft lithographic technique, (B) microprinting using conformational contact to form a pattern of ink on the surface, (C) microfluidic channels fabricated using micromolds (channels are used to form microfibers of a sacrificial substance that is then removed to form hollow fibers), and (D) complex vascularized structures fabricated using an assembly of microgels (reproduced with permission from [53] ). …”
Rapid progress in tissue engineering research in past decades has opened up vast possibilities to tackle the challenges of generating tissues or organs that mimic native structures. The success of tissue engineered constructs largely depends on the incorporation of a stable vascular network that eventually anastomoses with the host vasculature to support the various biological functions of embedded cells. In recent years, significant progress has been achieved with respect to extrusion, laser, micro-molding, and electrospinning-based techniques that allow the fabrication of any geometry in a layer-by-layer fashion. Moreover, decellularized matrix, self-assembled structures, and cell sheets have been explored to replace the biopolymers needed for scaffold fabrication. While the techniques have evolved to create specific tissues or organs with outstanding geometric precision, formation of interconnected, functional, and perfused vascular networks remains a challenge. This article briefly reviews recent progress in 3D fabrication approaches used to fabricate vascular networks with incorporated cells, angiogenic factors, proteins, and/or peptides. The influence of the fabricated network on blood vessel formation, and the various features, merits, and shortcomings of the various fabrication techniques are discussed and summarized.
“… Fig. 4 Creation of a capillary bed-like structure mimicking native tissue: (A) fabrication of a micro-scale structure using a soft lithographic technique, (B) microprinting using conformational contact to form a pattern of ink on the surface, (C) microfluidic channels fabricated using micromolds (channels are used to form microfibers of a sacrificial substance that is then removed to form hollow fibers), and (D) complex vascularized structures fabricated using an assembly of microgels (reproduced with permission from [53] ). …”
Rapid progress in tissue engineering research in past decades has opened up vast possibilities to tackle the challenges of generating tissues or organs that mimic native structures. The success of tissue engineered constructs largely depends on the incorporation of a stable vascular network that eventually anastomoses with the host vasculature to support the various biological functions of embedded cells. In recent years, significant progress has been achieved with respect to extrusion, laser, micro-molding, and electrospinning-based techniques that allow the fabrication of any geometry in a layer-by-layer fashion. Moreover, decellularized matrix, self-assembled structures, and cell sheets have been explored to replace the biopolymers needed for scaffold fabrication. While the techniques have evolved to create specific tissues or organs with outstanding geometric precision, formation of interconnected, functional, and perfused vascular networks remains a challenge. This article briefly reviews recent progress in 3D fabrication approaches used to fabricate vascular networks with incorporated cells, angiogenic factors, proteins, and/or peptides. The influence of the fabricated network on blood vessel formation, and the various features, merits, and shortcomings of the various fabrication techniques are discussed and summarized.
“…To better recapitulate the morphological and functional features of the BBB, researchers have focused on harnessing the natural processes of vascular development in vivo, whereby endothelial precursors coalesce and organize into complex microvascular networks (vasculogenesis) and endothelial cells sprout from preexisting blood vessels (angiogenesis) (111). This inherent ability of endothelial cells to form tubular structures has been extensively employed to engineer 3D vascular networks with HUVECs and lung stromal cells or placental pericytes; the resulting structures exhibit improved morphology, TJ protein expression, and solute transport machinery in comparison to other 3D tubular structures or 2D models (112).…”
Section: Self-assembled Vasculatures and The Role Of Emergencementioning
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is one of the most selective endothelial barriers. An understanding of its cellular, morphological, and biological properties in health and disease is necessary to develop therapeutics that can be transported from blood to brain. In vivo models have provided some insight into these features and transport mechanisms adopted at the brain, yet they have failed as a robust platform for the translation of results into clinical outcomes. In this article, we provide a general overview of major BBB features and describe various models that have been designed to replicate this barrier and neurological pathologies linked with the BBB. We propose several key parameters and design characteristics that can be employed to engineer physiologically relevant models of the blood–brain interface and highlight the need for a consensus in the measurement of fundamental properties of this barrier.
“…Photolithography is a micropatterning technique that uses photocrosslinked polymers in order to pattern vascular network components in 2D or 3D microenvironments. This approach utilizes a prepolymer solution that, together with an initiator, is placed under a photomask; UV radiation exposure triggers a photoreaction that crosslinks the polymer, thus forming the desired pattern [101]. The scale of the channels obtainable by this technique can now resolve to 15 μm in diameter, which is akin to capillary scale architecture [102].…”
Section: Biomimicry Of Vasculaturementioning
confidence: 99%
“…One strategy available is direct ink printing, which offers a very precise vascular network. Therriault et al [103] described the use of fugitive organic ink for printing 3D vascular structures and integrating them within an epoxy matrix, providing promising results within the field [101]. This has been evolved by Wu et al [104], who used a photocurable Pluronic F127 gel as the sacrificial ink within a hydrogel matrix.…”
Section: Biomimicry Of Vasculaturementioning
confidence: 99%
“…Cells can then be coated on the channels' walls. Considering that the PGS has a high degradation rate when implanted subcutaneously [101], other polymers have also been tested with this technique, some examples including PLGA [107,108] or poly(dimethyl siloxane) [109].…”
Plastic surgery encompasses a broad spectrum of reconstructive challenges and prides itself upon developing and adopting new innovations. Practice has transitioned from microsurgery to supermicrosurgery with a possible future role in even smaller surgical frontiers. Exploiting materials on a nanoscale has enabled better visualization and enhancement of biological processes toward better wound healing, tumor identification and viability of tissues, all cornerstones of plastic surgery practice. Recent advances in nanomedicine and biomimicry herald further reconstructive progress facilitating soft and hard tissue, nerve and vascular engineering. These lay the foundation for improved biocompatibility and tissue integration by the optimization of engineered implants or tissues. This review will broadly examine each of these technologies, highlighting areas of progress that reconstructive surgeons may not be familiar with, which could see adoption into our armamentarium in the not-so-distant future.
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