Middle and Later Stone Age chronology of Kisese II rockshelter (UNESCO World Heritage Kondoa Rock-Art Sites), Tanzania

Abstract

The archaeology of East Africa during the last ~65,000 years plays a central role in debates about the origins and dispersal of modern humans, Homo sapiens. Despite the historical importance of the region to these discussions, reliable chronologies for the nature, tempo, and timing of human behavioral changes seen among Middle Stone Age (MSA) and Later Stone Age (LSA) archaeological assemblages are sparse. The Kisese II rockshelter in the Kondoa region of Tanzania, originally excavated in 1956, preserves a ≥ 6-m-thick archaeological succession that spans the MSA/LSA transition, with lithic artifacts such as Levallois and bladelet cores and backed microliths, the recurrent use of red ochre, and >5,000 ostrich eggshell beads and bead fragments. Twenty-nine radiocarbon dates on ostrich eggshell carbonate make Kisese II one of the most robust chronological sequences for understanding archaeological change over the last ~47,000 years in East Africa. In particular, ostrich eggshell beads and backed microliths appear by 46–42 ka cal BP and occur throughout overlying Late Pleistocene and Holocene strata. Changes in lithic technology suggest an MSA/LSA transition that began 39–34.3 ka, with typical LSA technologies in place by the Last Glacial Maximum. The timing of these changes demonstrates the time-transgressive nature of behavioral innovations often linked to the origins of modern humans, even within a single region of Africa.

The Middle/Later Stone Age transition and cultural dynamics of late Pleistocene East Africa

“…East Africa is a useful region to study because of its relatively large number of archeological sequences that sample the MSA/LSA transition, including Enkapune ya Muto, Kisese II, multiple sites at Lukenya Hill, Magosi, Magubike, Mtongwe, Mumba, Nasera, Panga ya Saidi, and Shurmai; individual MSA and LSA sites in the Lake Victoria basin, Olduvai Gorge, and Kuumbi Cave provide additional constraints on the transition but lack extensive stratigraphic sequences or large sample sizes sufficient to assess change over time (Table ). East Africa as defined here encompasses ~1.77 million km 2 and can serve as a useful point of comparison for other similarly sized regions that also preserve MSA/LSA sequences, such as Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa (~1.88 million km 2 ), as well as southern Africa (~2.09 million km 2 ) …”

“…I assume but cannot yet demonstrate the use of Central Rift Valley obsidian for Shurmai (70 km source distance) and the more distant Kisese II. I assume this because of the lack of clear evidence for the use of other obsidian sources in the Rift Valley or elsewhere …”

“…In Africa, the temporally equivalent archeological “event” is the Middle/Later (MSA/LSA) transition, dated at multiple sites to as early as ~45–60 ka . As in Europe and the Levant, this transition is recognized by the replacement of artifact technologies that persisted for some 200,000 years or more, with Levallois‐based industries giving way to those characterized by the production of smaller tools often made on blades and bladelets or using bipolar technology, end‐ rather than side‐scrapers, and greater use of groundstone and bone tools, beads, and ochre (Figures and ).…”

“…(a) Lava side‐scraper on a Levallois flake, Wakondo (Rusinga Island); (b, c) chert and obsidian bifacial points, Nyamita (Rusinga Island) and GvJm22 (Lukenya Hill); (d, e) chert Levallois cores, GvJm22 (Lukenya Hill); (f) chert bipolar core, Nasera; (g, h) chert and obsidian end‐scrapers, GvJm22 (Lukenya Hill) and Enkapune ya Muto; (i–k), chert bladelet cores from GvJm22 (Lukenya Hill) and Kisese II; (l) obsidian large retouched blade, Enkapune ya Muto; (m–w) series of chert and obsidian backed blades and bladelets from GvJm22 (Lukenya Hill), (x–z) chert and shale backed pieces (“crescents”) from Mumba and MtongweRedrawn from Refs. …”

“…Other behaviorally significant artifact types at some Middle and Later Stone age sites in East Africa. (a) Ostrich eggshell beads and production debris, spit XVII, Kisese II; (b) ochre‐stained “palette” or lower grindstone, spit III, Kisese II; (c) ochre fragment with grinding facets and striations, spit VI, Kisese II; (d) notched/incised bone projectile point, context 1015, Kuumbi Cave; (e) gastropod and sea shell ( Conus ) beads, layers 4–16, Panga ya Saidi; (f, g) upper grindstones, bed V, Mumba . Copyright from University of Tübingen (h) notched or incised bone fragment, layer 8, Panga ya Saidi.…”