Milk Composition of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) in a Natural Environment in Myanmar during Late Lactation

Abstract

The nutritional content of milk from free-living Asian elephants has not previously been reported, despite being vital for better management of captive populations. This study analyzed both milk composition and consumed plant species of Asian elephants managed in their natural environment in Myanmar. Longitudinal samples (n = 36) were obtained during both the wet and the dry season from six mature females in mid to late lactation in 2016 and 2017. Milk composition averaged 82.44% water, with 17.56% total solids containing 5.23% protein, 15.10% fat, 0.87% ash, and 0.18 µg/mL vitamin E. Solids and protein increased with lactation month. Total protein in milk was higher during the wet vs. the dry season. Observed factors linked with maternal (age, parity, size and origin) and calf traits (sex) had significant associations with milk nutrient levels. Primary forages consumed contained moderate protein and fiber. Higher dietary protein during the wet season (11–25%) compared to the dry season (6–19%) may be linked with increased milk protein observed. Our results call for further field studies of milk and diet composition, over entire seasons/lactation periods, and across maternal and calf traits, to improve feeding management, with an overall goal of maximized health and survival.

Physiological changes in captive elephants in Northern Thailand as a result of the COVID-19 tourism ban – muscle, liver, metabolic function, and body condition

“…Thus, more studies are needed to tease apart environmental (i.e., seasonal) versus workload effects on CK in elephants. Other parameters (AST, ALP, and GGT) showed no seasonal variations over the 2-year study, in agreement with Myanmar elephant data ( 71 ).…”

“…However, in that study elephants also were not working due to a logging ban, so authors speculated the CK variation might reflect a natural seasonal variation in physiological processes rather than workload. While exposure to high temperatures can lead to dehydration and muscle damage as animals try to cool themselves ( 70 , 71 ), elephants may also be susceptible to cold. Ambient temperatures in Thailand are cooler in the rainy and winter seasons, and some camp owners claim elephants shiver when they are cold.…”

Seasonal variation of health in Asian elephants

“…This influences their protein intake, since in the dry season, elephants ingest low levels of protein (browse period), and in wet seasons, they consume higher protein levels (grazing periods) ( McCullagh, 1969 ; Brown and White, 1979 ). A study assessing the protein content of the favourite food plants consumed by our study elephants in Myanmar across different seasons also found that the crude protein was significantly higher in wet versus dry season plants ( Dierenfeld et al , 2020 ). Such foraging differences in our study elephants are especially detectable in their BUN levels, with BUN being the main nitrogenous end product of protein metabolism ( Fowler and Mikota, 2006 ).…”

Macronutrient composition of milk from two captive African elephant (Loxodonta africana) cows

“…Thus, both captive North American African elephants and free-ranging elephants in Africa display the same pattern of increasing milk nutrient density over lactation, strongly suggesting that these patterns are fixed and relatively unaffected by external factors such as diet. A recent study on work elephants in Myanmar (Dierenfeld et al, 2020) found the same pattern of increasing fat and protein in Asian elephant milk (sugar was not measured). Published results from three captive Asian elephants also found a similar pattern of increased DM, fat, CP, ash, Ca, and P and decreased sugar content over lactation (Abbondanza et al, 2013) indicating that the milk of both elephant species become higher in fat, protein and energy, and lower in sugar over lactation.…”