Minerals: Exercise performance and supplementation in athletes*

Abstract

This paper examines whether mineral supplements are necessary for athletes, and whether these supplements will enhance performance. Macrominerals (calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus) and trace minerals (zinc, copper, selenium, chromium, and iron) are described. Calcium supplements are important for the health of bones. Athletes tend to have enhanced calcium status as assessed by bone mineral density, with the notable exception of female amenorrhoeic athletes. Magnesium status is adequate for most athletes, and there is no evidence that magnesium supplements can enhance performance. Phosphorus status is adequate for athletes. Phosphorus supplementation over an extended period of time can result in lowered blood calcium, however, some studies have shown that acute 'phosphate loading' will enhance performance. Athletes may have a zinc deficiency induced by poor diet and loss of zinc in sweat and urine. Limited data exist on the relationship of performance and zinc status. Widespread deficiencies in copper have not been documented, and there are no data to suggest that copper supplementation will enhance performance. There is no reason to suspect a selenium deficiency in athletes. The relationship between selenium status and performance has not been established, but selenium may play a role as an antioxidant. Because of the low intakes of chromium for the general population, there is a possibility that athletes may be deficient. Exercise may create a loss in chromium because of increased excretion into the urine. Many athletes, particularly female, are iron depleted, but true iron deficiencies are rare. Iron depletion does not affect exercise performance but iron deficiency anaemia does. Iron supplements have not been shown to enhance performance except where iron deficiency anaemia exists. In conclusion, poor diets are perhaps the main reason for any mineral deficiencies found in athletes, although in certain cases exercise could contribute to the deficiency. Mineral supplementation may be important to ensure good health, but few studies have definitively documented any beneficial effect of mineral supplementation on performance.

Modification of immune responses to exercise by carbohydrate, glutamine and anti-oxidant supplements

“…50,51 Athletes tend to ingest above average quantities of these micronutrients and it may be that, as with dietary protein requirements, any increase in need is countered by increased dietary intake. However, it could be that the requirement for most vitamins is simply not increased in athletes.…”

Hand Strike-Induced Hemolysis and Adaptations in Iron Metabolism in Basque Ball Players

“…Both iron and ferritin levels are often low in athletes as a result of several factors: (a) high iron turnover and increased synthesis of iron proteins; (b) increased iron losses through urine, feces or sweat, and (c) decreased iron absorption or intakes [1,22] . The fall in iron levels may also be due to the infl ammatory response as a result of muscle damage [10] , which is very usual in elite sportsmen [36] .…”

Concentration of macro- and microelements in physically active students’ hair under the influence of multivitamins and minerals intake

“…Consumption of various sport-dedicated beverages rather often assists in recovery of normal electrolytes balance, whilst all necessary minerals should be taken with food (Clarkson, 1991(Clarkson, , 2000. Considering the importance of these elements for maintenance of body homeostasis, it becomes necessary to supply body with them.…”