Mirror-image stimulation.

Abstract

The psychological properties of an organism's own reflection in a mirror are analyzed in some detail. Methodological problems associated with mirror research are also discussed. Many organisms are responsive to mirrors, and reflected images are examined in terms of motivational and social stimulus properties which have been found to extend across a wide variety of species. Reinforcing properties of mirrors are interpreted in terms of novel stimulation with social stimulus overtones. Stimulus change and mimicry are 2 of the most prominent characteristics of an organism's mirror image. An animal in front of a mirror is instrumental in producing changes in the behavior of the reflected image, yet most organisms respond to mirrors as if their image represented another animal. In an attempt to conceptualize both the human and animal data, responses to mirrors are dimensionalized into other-directed and selfdirected behaviors. Implications of mirrors for abnormal behavior and psychotherapy are considered briefly.

Self-recognition among institutionalized profoundly retarded males: A replication

“…Similar results were obtained in a French "field study" in which 15 female retardates (MA .75 to 3.33) demonstrated equivocal reactions when placed in front of a mirror (Shentoub, SouIairac, & Rustin, 1955). Collectively, these findings indicate that, for these subjects, mirror-image stimulation is not intrinsically reinforcing, as predicted by Gallup (1968), and that PMRs rank somewhat below adolescent chimpanzees (Gallup, 1970;Gallup, McClure, Hill, & Bundy (1971) and orangutans (Lethmate & Ducker, cited in Gallup, Boren, Gagliardi, & Wallnau, in press) in the ability to make "self-directed" responses in the presence of a mirror. Similar negative results were obtained when a crabeating macaque was given 2,400 h of mirror exposure (Gallup, in press).…”

“…It was hypothesized that these modifications would lead to demonstrations of self-recognition as predicted by mirror-image stimulation theory (Gallup, 1968) and studies which have reported the presence of the ability among MA-matched normal infants (e.g., Gesell & Ames, 1947).…”

Effects of habituation on threat display and dominance establishment in the Siamese fighting fish,Betta splendens

“…[Gallup (1968), for example, has discussed the numerous important differences between mirror stimuli and the stimuli provided by live animals.] The second experiment was essentially a replication of the first, except that live fish were substituted for mirror images.…”

Metabolic costs of aggressive behaviour in the Siamese fighting fish,Betta splendens

“…Mirror-image stimulation experimentally confronts the tested animal with an opponent on its territory that is symmetric in size, motivation, and behavioural output, therefore forming a constant aggressive reinforcement for the tested animal [e.g. Gallup, 1968;Thompson, 1966]. Probably, since in a normal confrontation with a conspecific no such strict continuity in reciprocity exists, the readiness to show aggressive display to a mirror image has been found to be somewhat higher to a mirror-image than to a conspecific [Dore et al, 1978].…”