Modelling Volume Change and Deformation in Food Products/Processes: An Overview

Abstract

Volume change and large deformation occur in different solid and semi-solid foods during processing, e.g., shrinkage of fruits and vegetables during drying and of meat during cooking, swelling of grains during hydration, and expansion of dough during baking and of snacks during extrusion and puffing. In addition, food is broken down during oral processing. Such phenomena are the result of complex and dynamic relationships between composition and structure of foods, and driving forces established by processes and operating conditions. In particular, water plays a key role as plasticizer, strongly influencing the state of amorphous materials via the glass transition and, thus, their mechanical properties. Therefore, it is important to improve the understanding about these complex phenomena and to develop useful prediction tools. For this aim, different modelling approaches have been applied in the food engineering field. The objective of this article is to provide a general (non-systematic) review of recent (2005–2021) and relevant works regarding the modelling and simulation of volume change and large deformation in various food products/processes. Empirical- and physics-based models are considered, as well as different driving forces for deformation, in order to identify common bottlenecks and challenges in food engineering applications.

Quantitative study of impact damage on yellow peaches based on reflectance, absorbance and Kubelka–Munk spectral data

“…A higher value of RPD shows that the model has better predictive performance. 48,49 The relevant parameters were calculated by eqn (8), (9) and (10): 50,51 where y 1 and y 2 are the true and predicted values of the sample, respectively, ȳ 1 is the average of the true values of all samples, n is the sample size, and SD is the standard deviation of the prediction set.…”

“…A higher value of RPD shows that the model has better predictive performance. 48,49 The relevant parameters were calculated by eqn ( 8), ( 9) and (10): 50,51 Fig. 3 Processing methods of the spectral data: R ¼ Reflectance; A ¼ Absorbance; K-M ¼ Kubelka-Munk; MA ¼ moving average; GF ¼ Gaussian filter; SNV ¼ standard normal variate; CARS ¼ competitive adaptive reweighted sampling; UVE ¼ uninformative variable elimination; PLSR ¼ partial least squares regression; SVR ¼ support vector regression.…”

Effect of amylose/amylopectin ratio and extent of processing on the physical properties of expanded maize starches

“…The creation of an expanded product can be complex and requires bubble nucleation and growth; there may also be bubble coalescence and shrinkage (Kristiawan et al ., 2020). At the point when the expansion forces (typically water transitioning to steam) stop, the viscosity of this wall needs to be such that the expanded network does not collapse (Fan et al ., 1994; Purlis et al ., 2021). To predict starch expansions, an understanding of the status of the starch over a wide range of length scales and knowledge of several different phase transitions would be necessary (Purlis et al ., 2021).…”

“…At the point when the expansion forces (typically water transitioning to steam) stop, the viscosity of this wall needs to be such that the expanded network does not collapse (Fan et al ., 1994; Purlis et al ., 2021). To predict starch expansions, an understanding of the status of the starch over a wide range of length scales and knowledge of several different phase transitions would be necessary (Purlis et al ., 2021). Although there are substantial bodies of work investigating starch expansion, as it is important for human, animal and fish feeds (Drew et al ., 2007; Corsato Alvarenga et al ., 2021), as well as in packaging (González‐Seligra et al ., 2017; Lauer & Smith, 2020), ingredient preparation (Vedove et al ., 2021) and waste utilisation, generic understanding of the critical factors for expansion is limited (Drew et al ., 2007; González‐Seligra et al ., 2017; Lauer & Smith, 2020; Corsato Alvarenga et al ., 2021; Vedove et al ., 2021).…”

“…The breakdown of the starch, often called degree of starch gelatinisation (Singh et al ., 2007; Xie et al ., 2007) or starch conversion (Mitchell et al ., 1997), is often related to the starches’ performance as film formers, barriers and in stabilising the bubble wall (Domene‐López et al ., 2019). For thermomechanical extrusion, using one ingredient or simple blends of ingredients, the most important processing variable is considered to be the shear forces applied to the melt (Kantrong et al ., 2018; Kristiawan et al ., 2020; Espinosa‐Ramírez et al ., 2021; Purlis et al ., 2021). The specific mechanical energy, which combines the amount of material processed, the torque and the speed of the screws, will often correlate well with expansion (Ilo et al ., 1996; Filli et al ., 2012).…”