Modern, exogenous exposures associated with altered mammary gland development: A systematic review

Kam, Renee L.; Bernhardt, Sarah M.; Ingman, Wendy V.; Amir, Lisa H

doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2021.105342

Cited by 5 publications

(5 citation statements)

References 100 publications

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“…These novel results suggest that puberty is a sensitive window of mammary development and excess body fat during this time may be particularly impactful on lactation outcomes. In mice and rabbits, a high-fat or obesogenic diet during puberty increased the adiposity of the mammary glands and changed the shape of the alveoli in adulthood [ 10 ]. Similar findings have been found in research on Holstein heifers where high pre-pubertal growth rates have been linked to poorer mammary gland development (as determined by mammary DNA) [ 16 , 47 ].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…pectus excavatum), mitral valve prolapse, or hormonal disruption due to oestrogen insensitivity or endocrine disrupting chemicals [7][8][9]. In addition, there is increasing concern that exposure to environmental contaminants in utero or during puberty may impair mammary gland development [10]. Acquired breast hypoplasia can be associated with a history of breast radiation, breast reduction surgery or breast haemangioma [7].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Breast hypoplasia markers among women who report insufficient milk production: A retrospective online survey

Kam,

Amir,

Cullinane

et al. 2024

PLoS ONE

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Objectives To estimate the proportions of anatomical breast characteristics suggestive of breast hypoplasia among breastfeeding women self-reporting low milk supply. We also explored breast hypoplasia risk factors. Design Online survey conducted between October 2021 and January 2022. Setting Five low milk supply Facebook groups. Participants 487 women reporting low milk supply with their first child born ≥ 37 weeks gestation within 5 years of participation in this study, and residing in the USA, Australia or the UK. We present data on the primary outcome (‘breast type’) for 399 women. Women were excluded if the dyad was separated for more than 24 hours during the hospital stay, or if the mother reported removing milk less than 6 times per day from each breast on most days before being aware of having insufficient milk production. Primary and secondary outcome measures The proportions of proposed breast hypoplasia markers including atypical breast type, widely spaced breasts, breast asymmetry, stretch marks on the breast and lack of pregnancy breast growth. We also estimated the odds of having breast hypoplasia markers in at-risk groups compared to reference groups, adjusting for covariates. Results Approximately 68% reported at least one atypical breast (270/399; 95% CI: 62.9%, 72.1%). Around 47% reported widely spaced breasts (212/449; 95% CI: 42.7%, 52.7%), 72% a lack of pregnancy breast growth (322/449; 95% CI: 68.3%, 77.4%), and 76% stretch marks on the breast (191/250; 95% CI: 70.7%, 81.3%). Multiple logistic regression analyses identified being overweight during pubertal years as a risk factor for atypical breast type and lack of pregnancy breast growth. Conclusions Participants in low milk supply Facebook groups reported high rates of breast hypoplasia markers. Being overweight during adolescence was a risk factor for breast hypoplasia markers. These findings should be confirmed in well-conducted large cohort studies to determine the strongest combination of hypoplasia markers in predicting low supply.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Breast hypoplasia markers among women who report insufficient milk production: A retrospective online survey

Kam,

Amir,

Cullinane

et al. 2024

PLoS ONE

Self Cite

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“…Glandular causes of impaired lactation are primarily due to an anatomic lack of the tissue necessary to create a milk supply that is sufficient for exclusive breastfeeding 15 . This lack of tissue can be the result of inadequate mammary gland development 48 or breast surgery 49–51 . However, genetic mutations and epigenetic changes beginning in utero and through puberty can alter critical receptors for prolactin and growth hormone, which can also affect milk production 48 …”

Section: Glandular Causes Of Insufficient Lactationmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…This lack of tissue can be the result of inadequate mammary gland development 48 or breast surgery 49–51 . However, genetic mutations and epigenetic changes beginning in utero and through puberty can alter critical receptors for prolactin and growth hormone, which can also affect milk production 48 …”

Section: Glandular Causes Of Insufficient Lactationmentioning

confidence: 99%

Impaired Lactation: Review of Delayed Lactogenesis and Insufficient Lactation

Farah

Barger

Klima

et al. 2021

J Midwife Womens Health

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It is estimated that as many as 1 in 20 women worldwide are unable to successfully breastfeed or provide adequate nutrition for their infants through their breast milk alone. Compromised nutrition in the early stages of life places the infant at risk for insufficient growth as well as serious and potentially disabling or life‐threatening complications. This review summarizes risk factors associated with impaired lactation that may result in either delayed lactogenesis or insufficient lactation. The risk factors for insufficient lactation are categorized into preglandular, glandular, and postglandular causes. Impaired lactation can occur despite maternal motivation, knowledge, support, and appropriate breastfeeding technique. Although there is no clear way to predict who will experience impaired lactation, knowledge about the risk factors can enable health care professionals to better identify at‐risk mother‐infant dyads. Early intervention may help prevent infant complications associated with inadequate nutritional intake.

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“…No large scale analytical studies on clinical samples or populations have been conducted to compare breastfeeding outcomes in individuals with hypoplastic breasts to those with normal anatomy. Although some possible causes of breast hypoplasia have been studied in animals, similar research is lacking in humans (Kam et al, 2021c). Women unfamiliar with possible signs of breast hypoplasia (e.g., noticeable breast asymmetry or a wide intra-mammary width) may not seek medical advice and only become aware of a possible issue after they have given birth and attempted breastfeeding (Marasco, 2014).…”

Section: Breast Hypoplasia-a Challenging Diagnosismentioning

confidence: 99%

Research Challenges and Considerations in Investigating Rare Exposures Using Breast Hypoplasia as an Example

2021

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Modern, exogenous exposures associated with altered mammary gland development: A systematic review

Cited by 5 publications

References 100 publications

Breast hypoplasia markers among women who report insufficient milk production: A retrospective online survey

Breast hypoplasia markers among women who report insufficient milk production: A retrospective online survey

Impaired Lactation: Review of Delayed Lactogenesis and Insufficient Lactation

Research Challenges and Considerations in Investigating Rare Exposures Using Breast Hypoplasia as an Example

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