Modernization is associated with intensive breastfeeding patterns in the Bolivian Amazon

Abstract

For many traditional, non-industrialized populations, intensive and prolonged breastfeeding buffers infant health against poverty, poor sanitation, and limited health care. Due to novel influences on local economies, values, and beliefs, the traditional and largely beneficial breastfeeding patterns of such populations may be changing to the detriment of infant health. To assess if and why such changes are occurring in a traditional breastfeeding population, we document breastfeeding patterns in the Bolivian Tsimane, a forager-horticulturalist population in the early stages of modernization. Three predictions are developed and tested to evaluate the general hypothesis that modernizing influences encourage less intensive breastfeeding in the Tsimane: 1) Tsimane mothers in regions of higher infant mortality will practice more intensive BF; 2) Tsimane mothers who are located closer to a local market town will practice more intensive BF; and 3) Older Tsimane mothers will practice more intensive BF. Predictions were tested using a series of maternal interviews (from 2003-2011, n=215) and observations of mother-infant dyads (from 2002-2007, n=133). Tsimane breastfeeding patterns were generally intensive: 72% of mothers reported initiating BF within a few hours of birth, mean (± SD) age of CF introduction was 4.1±2.0 months, and mean (± SD) weaning age was 19.2±7.3 months. There was, however, intra-population variation in several dimensions of breastfeeding (initiation, frequency, duration, and complementary feeding). Contrary to our predictions, breastfeeding was most intensive in the most modernized Tsimane villages, and maternal age was not a significant predictor of breastfeeding patterns. Regional differences accounted for variation in most dimensions of breastfeeding (initiation, frequency, and complementary feeding). Future research should therefore identify constraints on breastfeeding in the less modernized Tsimane regions, and examine the formation of maternal beliefs regarding infant feeding.

Salivary microbiomes of indigenous Tsimane mothers and infants are distinct despite frequent premastication

“…With increasing age and dental maturation, Tsimane infant oral microbiomes become more adult like, while the frequency of breastfeeding and premastication gradually decline (Martin, 2015; Veile et al, 2014). Younger children, therefore, may be protected by prebiotic and immunological constituents in breast milk and maternal saliva that selectively promote the growth of some commensals while inhibiting establishment of pathogens.…”

“…Almost universally, Tsimane infants are delivered vaginally at home and breastfed on demand throughout the day and night. On average they are exclusively breastfed for about 4 months and weaned at about 19 months (Veile et al, 2014). Mothers are the primary caregivers responsible for feeding children up through the first two years of life.…”

‘Life does not make it easy to breast-feed’: using the socio-ecological framework to determine social breast-feeding obstacles in a low-income population in Tijuana, Mexico

“…In southern and rural areas, where traditional practices are the norm, there are higher breast-feeding rates than in the northern, more urban, modern environments. There are other studies indicating that breast-feeding rates are decreasing in women migrating from traditional, rural areas to modern, urban societies with higher income (40)(41)(42) . Modernization implies acculturation or adoption of the values, beliefs and behaviours of the mainstream society (43) .…”

Immune function in Amazonian horticulturalists

“…Tsimane are predominately a natural fertility population, with a total fertility rate of 9.1 births per woman (Gurven et al, 2007; McAllister et al, 2012; Blackwell et al, 2015). Tsimane breastfeed their infants on-demand, with a mean weaning age of 19 months (Veile et al, 2014). …”