Coating
with hydroxyapatite (HAP) presents a mainstream strategy
for rendering bioinert titanium implants bioactive. However, the low
porosity of pure HAP coatings does not allow for the infiltration
of the surface of the metallic implant with the host cells. Polymeric
scaffolds do enable this osseointegration effect, but their bonding
onto titanium presents a challenge because of the disparity in hydrophilicity.
Here, we demonstrate the inability of a composite scaffold composed
of carbonated HAP (CHAP) nanoparticles interspersed within electrospun
ε-polycaprolactone (PCL) nanofibers to bind onto titanium. To
solve this challenge, an intermediate layer of graphene nanosheets
was deposited in a pulsed laser deposition process, which facilitated
the bonding of the scaffold. The duration of the deposition of graphene
(0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 min) and the thickness of its mesolayer affected
numerous physical and chemical properties of the material, including
the surface atomic proportion of carbon bonds, the orientation and
interlinking of the polymeric nanofibers, and the surface roughness,
which increased in direct proportion with the thickness of the graphene
mesolayer. Because the polymeric scaffold did not adhere onto the
surface of pure titanium, no cells were detected growing on it in vitro. In contrast, human fibroblasts adhered, spread,
and proliferated well on all the substrates sputtered with both graphene
and the composite scaffold. The orientations of cytoskeletal filopodia
and lamellipodia were largely determined by the topographic orientation
of the nanofibers and the geometry of the surface pores, attesting
to the important effects that the presence of a scaffold has on the
cellular behavior. The protection of titanium from corrosion in the
simulated body fluid (SBF) was enhanced by coating with graphene and
the composite scaffold, with the most superior resistance to the attack
of the corrosive ions being exhibited by the substrate subjected to
the shortest duration of the graphene deposition because of the highest
atomic ratio of C–C to C–O bonds detected in it. Overall,
some properties of titanium, such as roughness and wettability, were
improved monotonously with an increase in the thickness of the graphene
mesolayer, while others, such as cell viability and resistance to
corrosion, required optimization, given that they were diminished
at higher graphene mesolayer thicknesses. Nevertheless, every physical
and chemical property of titanium analyzed was significantly improved
by coating with graphene and the composite scaffold. This type of
multilayer design evidently holds a great promise in the design of
biomaterials for implants in orthopedics and tissue engineering.