Molecular Detection and Differentiation of Arthropod, Fungal, Protozoan, Bacterial and Viral Pathogens of Honeybees

Abstract

The honeybee Apis mellifera is highly appreciated worldwide because of its products, but also as it is a pollinator of crops and wild plants. The beehive is vulnerable to infections due to arthropods, fungi, protozoa, bacteria and/or viruses that manage to by-pass the individual and social immune mechanisms of bees. Due to the close proximity of bees in the beehive and their foraging habits, infections easily spread within and between beehives. Moreover, international trade of bees has caused the global spread of infections, several of which result in significant losses for apiculture. Only in a few cases can infections be diagnosed with the naked eye, by direct observation of the pathogen in the case of some arthropods, or by pathogen-associated distinctive traits. Development of molecular methods based on the amplification and analysis of one or more genes or genomic segments has brought significant progress to the study of bee pathogens, allowing for: (i) the precise and sensitive identification of the infectious agent; (ii) the analysis of co-infections; (iii) the description of novel species; (iv) associations between geno- and pheno-types and (v) population structure studies. Sequencing of bee pathogen genomes has allowed for the identification of new molecular targets and the development of specific genotypification strategies.

Effects of natural treatments on the varroa mite infestation levels and overall health of honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies

“…The nucleic acid concentration and purity were measured by NanoDrop 1000 Spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.). DNA samples were used for the detection of common DNA pathogens of bees [ 30 ]: Melissococcus plutonius , Paenibacillus larvae , Nosema ceranae , Nosema apis and Malpighamoeba mellificae . RNA samples, on the other hand, were used for both the detection of common RNA pathogens of bees [ 30 ]–deformed wing virus variants A (DWV-A) and B (DWV-B), acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV), chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV), sacbrood bee virus (SBV) and black queen cell virus (BQCV)–and the study of honeybee immune response, as detailed below.…”

PCR-based screening of pathogens and parasites in Bombus terrestris populations of Turkey

“…It has been shown by many studies that one of the most important reasons for these population decreases is associated with parasites and pathogens infecting bumblebees [7][8][9][10]. Nowadays, morphological methods are used to detect parasites and pathogens in both honeybees and bumblebees, but lately PCR-based molecular methods have been frequently used due to their high speci city, sensitivity, more accurate and reliable results [6,[11][12][13][14].…”

The Ascosphaera apis Infection (Chalkbrood Disease) Alters the Gut Bacteriome Composition of the Honeybee

“…The mite infestation not only leads to a decline in individual bee health, but can also facilitate the transmission of various honeybee viruses, exacerbating colony collapse [ 14 ]. American foulbrood (AFB) and European foulbrood (EFB) have been reported as bacterial diseases, Nosema as a protozoan disease, and Chalkbrood and Stonebrood as fungal diseases [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Among these diseases, Nosemosis and Chalkbrood disease are the most serious diseases in the Republic of Korea [ 18 ].…”