Motivation-based transformative learning and potential volunteer tourists: facilitating more sustainable outcomes

Abstract

Transformative learning (TL) is an important component of sustainable volunteer tourism experiences, potentially reducing unsustainable outcomes, and educating and enlightening volunteers. This paper reviews theories and issues about TL in volunteer tourism, and analyzes data from 1008 useable responses to an online survey of potential volunteer tourists. A factor-cluster analysis of potential volunteer tourists' motivations identified key volunteer tourist segments and assessed differences in expectations of TL across each segment. Altruism remains the primary motivation, with personal development an expectation, but the study also found desires to experience different cultures, build relationships with family, and to escape one's daily life. Three motivation segments emerged: Volunteers, Voluntourists, and Tourists. Differences in the three clusters' expectations for TL were assessed through multiple analysis of variance using items representing Taylor's three elements of TL: self-reflection, engaging in dialogue, and intercultural experience.Differences in TL expectations varied significantly across the three segments. Potential Voluntourists were most likely to expect to participate in TL opportunities. The paper concludes with suggestions for maximizing TL for each segment. Volunteers and Tourists may require activities that include different, less obvious forms of TL. Volunteer tourism organizations need to invest significantly in staff training in TL.

Using Transformative Learning Theory to Explore the Mechanisms of Citizen Participation for Environmental Education on the Removal of Invasive Species: The Case of Green Island, Taiwan

“…In recent years, tourism has gradually gained recognition as a learning path (Coghlan & Gooch, 2011;Falk, Ballantyne, Packer, & Benckendorff, 2012;Knollenberg, McGehee, Boley, & Clemmons, 2014;Wearing & McGehee, 2013). Therefore, based on the concept of transformative learning, this study investigates how involvement in volunteer tourism can change participants' attitudes and actions toward removing invasive species and, with the involvement of community volunteers, produce a model of citizen action that integrates human resources from inside and outside the community for joint participation in the removal of invasive species.…”

“…McGehee and Santos (2005) believed that volunteer tourism may be a consciousness-raising experience for participants, which can lead to changes in their views on society. Additionally, Knollenberg et al (2014) believed that voluntourists use the transformative learning process to seek changes in their views. With regard to the transformative learning process, Coghlan and Gooch (2011) compared the learning and change process in volunteer tourism with Mezirow's (1978) ten phases of transformative learning and found that this process can embody the concept of transformative learning.…”

“…In fact, tourism is an excellent channel for lifelong learning (Broomhall, Pitman, Majocha, & Mcewan, 2010). A large number of studies have shown that learning is an important motivator for tourism (e.g., Falk et al, 2012;Knollenberg et al, 2014;Wearing & McGehee, 2013). The three main components of transformative learning-self-reflection, engaging in dialogue with others, and intercultural experiences (Taylor, 2008)-occur during the process of tourism, meaning that the use of transformative learning theory to explain and operationalize the relationship between tourism and learning is appropriate.…”

An Opinion Piece. A response to the Special Issue on volunteer tourism: the performative absence of volunteers

“…In a recent interview conducted by the author of this Opinion Piece, one organisation director talked of its "cash cow" programmes that offset the more "development-orientated" and "loss-running" projects. It has bothered me ever since that I lacked the succinctness Knollenberg et al (2014) provide to illustrate clearly the interplay between programme design and different types of volunteers in a way that, refreshingly, resists the unending references to either altruism or self-development as definers of volunteer tourists.…”

“…The paper lays bare the values that are embedded into the evaluation process and offers the work as a dialogic challenge to organisations interested in "greater transparency and accountability" (p. 881). More insight comes in Knollenberg, McGehee, Boley, and Clemmons's (2014) study where they track different modes of Transformative Learning against a useful typology of volunteers, voluntourists and tourists. In a recent interview conducted by the author of this Opinion Piece, one organisation director talked of its "cash cow" programmes that offset the more "development-orientated" and "loss-running" projects.…”