Motivation from Agency and Reward in Typical Development and Autism: Narrative Review of Behavioral and Neural Evidence

Abstract

Our ability to perform voluntary actions and make choices is shaped by the motivation from having control over the resulting effects (agency) and positive outcomes (reward). We offer an overview of distinct and common behavioral and neural signatures of agency and reward. We discuss their typical and atypical developmental trajectories, focusing on autism spectrum disorder (ASD), which is characterized by neurodiverse processes underlying action selection. We propose that reduced sensitivity to agency and reward in ASD may be related to atypical multisensory processes and motor planning, with potential for understanding restricted and repetitive behaviors. We emphasize the limitations of the existing literature, and prospects for future research. Understanding the neurocognitive processes that shape the way people with ASD select actions and perceive outcomes is essential to support not only learning, but also volition and self-determination.

Autonomic brain functioning and age-related health concerns

“…Sociocultural factors can substantially alter how motivation is perceived and valued and how this impacts the neurobiology of the brain ( Kim, 2013 ). Cultural norms and expectations can influence how individuals perceive and value motivation, thereby influencing the brain mechanisms that underlie motivation and reward processing ( Hinsz et al, 2019 ; Valori et al, 2022 ). For instance, ships carry goods for most countries with ports and access to maritime routes.…”

“…Members are expected to complete their respective jobs, collaborate, and address any challenges that may arise due to diversity. Members will have to learn new things and how to deal with other cultures because of all the demands placed on them ( Hinsz et al, 2019 ; Valori et al, 2022 ). For example, cultural ideals of success and achievement can influence how individuals perceive and evaluate motivation for success.…”

“…Sociocultural factors may also affect how individuals respond to stress and adversity, influencing motivation and the neural systems that regulate it ( Ozbay et al, 2007 ; Telzer et al, 2021 ). The functioning of the brain systems that regulate motivation and reward processing may be affected, for example, by discrimination or social marginalization, resulting in increased stress and decreased motivation in specific individuals ( Kim, 2013 ; Hinsz et al, 2019 ; Valori et al, 2022 ; Corker et al, 2013 ; Triandis, 2001 ; Ozbay et al, 2007 ; Telzer et al, 2021 ). Consequently, it is essential to consider the diverse cultural contexts in which people live and work when designing interventions and therapies.…”

Agency and reward across development and in autism: A free-choice paradigm

“…We prefer to perform actions associated with positive effects, which have a motivational value and can be defined as rewards. Research has extensively investigated agency and reward as separate mechanisms, showing that they contribute differently to people’s action selection, shape distinct aspects of behaviour and emerge from distinct neural bases [ 10 ]. On the contrary, agency and reward are closely interconnected during naturalistic interactions with the outside world.…”

“…Neural evidence suggests that agency and reward might act similarly in facilitating people’s selection of actions, specifically influencing the motor planning phase [ 10 ]. Preparatory neural activity in motor and premotor areas anticipates voluntary movements and contributes to agency [ 15 ], which results in a sense of control that makes actions faster [ 7 ].…”