Multiple factors correlating with wing malformations in the population of Parnassius apollo (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) restituted from a low number of individuals: A mini review

Abstract

The Apollo butterfly, Parnassius apollo (Linnaeus), was common in Europe over 100 years ago, but currently it is considered as near threatened. Different conservation programs have promoted the persistence of this species; however, it is still endangered. An example of such programs was the action devoted to reestablish the Apollo butterfly population in Pieniny National Park (Poland) from only 20-30 individuals which had survived till the last decade of the 20th century. This reintroduction has been successful; however, unexpected developmental problems appeared. Butterflies with deformed or reduced wings became frequent in the population living in the natural habitat, and particularly among those reared under seminatural conditions (in the same environment, but fenced by a net). Until recently, reasons for these malformations remained unknown. However, reports published during last months indicated that there are genetic, biochemical, and microbiological factors contributing to this phenomenon. In the malformed individuals, lesions in the wingless gene and dysfunctions of laccase 1 and 2 were found to be significantly more frequent than in normal insects. A large fraction of butterflies with deformed or reduced wings was devoid of the prokaryotic symbiont Wolbachia, which was present in most normal individuals. Moreover, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis (Pfeiffer) Smith and Thal, and Serratia sp., bacteria pathogenic to insects, were detected in the biological material from both normal and malformed butterflies from this population. These findings are summarized and discussed in this review, in the light of conservation of insects and restitution of their populations from a low number of individuals.

Combining modelling, field data and genetic variation to understand the post-reintroduction population genetics of the Marsh Fritillary butterfly (Euphydryas aurinia)

“…On a broader scale, it is recommended that the managers of other declining populations of the Marsh Fritillary strongly consider adopting this management strategy, and if necessary the captive breeding methodology, used in Cumbria (for details see Porter and Ellis 2011). A captive breeding programme for the Apollo butterfly (Parnassius apollo) in Poland resulted in an increase in wing malformations suspected to be at least in part due to the small founder population of approximately 20 individuals resulting in the increased frequency of deleterious recessive alleles in genes such as wingless, although this has not been confirmed (Pierzynowska et al 2019). This is similar to what could have occurred in Cumbria had the captive breeding programme been instituted sooner, while multiple sibling larval web remained, and therefore without the clear and obvious need for the additional Scottish founder stock.…”

A citizen science project reveals contrasting latitudinal gradients of wing deformity and parasite infection of monarch butterflies in New Zealand

“…Our results from the comparatively simple tritrophic system with non-migratory butterflies in New Zealand suggest that limited cold tolerance may be a driver of parasitism rates, wing deformities, and butterfly migratory behaviour. However, given the potential for inbreeding in New Zealand monarchs due to the founder effects experienced (Pierce et al, 2014), we cannot discount the possibility that a low level of genetic diversity could be affecting the development of wings through altering mutation frequencies in the wingless gene, bacterial infections, and/or the absence of the endosymbiont Wolbachia (Pierzynowska et al, 2019). Future research studies that analyse the known causes of wing malformations in butterflies in New Zealand monarchs are indeed warranted.…”

Sob gene is critical to wing development in Bombyx mori and Tribolium castaneum

“…Some insects have evolved fixed-wing systems allowing them to fold their wings over the abdomen to allow compact housing and to shield the body from damage (Ogawa & Yoshizawa, 2018). Seriously deformed wings could affect insect survival (Pierzynowska et al, 2019). The hindwings of beetles are used for flight, whereas the forewings have been modified into elytra, which are sclerotized structures providing mechanical protection and conservation of body moisture (Linz & Tomoyasu, 2015).…”