Muslim Identity, Dress Code Adherence and College Adjustment among American Muslim Women

Hijab, Religiosity, and Psychological Wellbeing of Muslim Women in the United States

“…Consistent with minority stress theory (Meyer, 1995(Meyer, , 2003, such negative experiences are associated with lower psychological wellbeing in minority groups (e.g., Rodriguez-Seijas et al, 2015). The perception of Muslim identity by the broader population has been linked with increased hate crimes (Abu-Ras & Abu-Bader, 2008) and negative outcomes in a variety of settings, including on university campuses (Rangoonwala et al, 2011), in the workplace (Ghumman & Jackson, 2010), and in recreational activities (Jiwani & Rail, 2010). It is noteworthy, however, that the practice of hijab is not a dichotomy (muhajabba vs. non-muhajabba), because women practice hijab in degrees.…”

“…Hijab conservativeness (i.e., the degree of body coverage) was evaluated using six visual depictions previously published (BBC News, n.d.) ranging from (1) least conservative (e.g., shayla) to (6) most conservative (e.g., burqa), with a not applicable option for non-muhajabba participants (Tolaymat & Moradi, 2011). Since the concept of hijab does not necessarily involve just covering one's hair, arms, and legs, but also wearing loose-fitted clothing (Rangoonwala et al, 2011), we asked participants to respond to the following statement: "When I am in mixed-gender settings (e.g., work, school, mall), I wear loose-fitted clothes" on a 3-point scale from (1) none of the time to (3) all the time.…”

“…Simultaneously, hijab can allow these women to visibly identify with the wider Muslim community, especially during stressful situations, which may facilitate social support and communion; such support and other resources can serve as a buffer against minority stress experiences (Meyer, 2003). For example, Muslim American women who engage in Islamic dress standards show better adjustment in college environments by reaching out to other Muslim women on campus (Rangoonwala et al, 2011). The practice of hijab has been associated with increased psychological wellbeing.…”

“…Hereafter, we refer to women who practice hijab as muhajabbas. Second, we considered looseness of clothing: Muslim women are advised to wear loose clothing that covers one's legs and arms (Rangoonwala et al, 2011). For Muslim women in the United States, such Islamic dress practice symbolizes not only religious identity, but also freedom from sexual objectification and pride in one's "tangible marker of difference" (Jasperse et al, 2012).…”

Dress as a Marker of Identity Construction in Arab Women’s Literature from the Diaspora

“…Namely, hijab which is a declaration of women faith and a protection from male gaze becomes the epitome of cultural and political ramifications (Bigger 2006;Hasan, 2016). As an illustration, in the aftermath of 9/11 and London transport bombings in 2005, hijab has been heavily burdened with terrorism and radicalization (Rangoonwala & Epinoza, 2011;Lewis, 2015;Hasan, 2016). In addition, it has been closely attached to ahistorical and outdated traditions and backwardness rather than modernity and fashionable style of life; in other words, hijab has come to signify "[…] submission and of cancellation of the women's physicality" (Hansen, 2004, p. 382;Calefato, 2010, p. 352).…”