Mutagenicity of sodium hypochlorite for Salmonella typhimurium

Wlodkowski, Theodore J.; Rosenkranz, Herbert S.

doi:10.1016/0165-1161(75)90061-8

Cited by 61 publications

(20 citation statements)

References 5 publications

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“…Other DNA damage may also occur. Mutagenesis upon HOCl exposure has been investigated in studies using various tester strains of Salmonella typhimurium (51,55), with contradictory results. Chloramines were reported to be mutagenic in S. typhimurium and in Bacillus subtilis (45,51).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Hypochlorous acid stress in Escherichia coli: resistance, DNA damage, and comparison with hydrogen peroxide stress

1996

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We have investigated the mechanisms of killing of Escherichia coli by HOCl by identifying protective functions. HOCl challenges were performed on cultures arrested in stationary phase and in exponential phase. Resistance to HOCl in both cases was largely mediated by genes involved in resistance to hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ). In stationary phase, a mutation in rpoS, which controls the expression of starvation genes including those which protect against oxidative stress, renders the cells hypersensitive to killing by HOCl. RpoSregulated genes responsible for this sensitivity were dps, which encodes a DNA-binding protein, and, to a lesser extent, katE and katG, encoding catalases; all three are involved in resistance to H 2 O 2 . In exponential phase, induction of the oxyR regulon, an adaptive response to H 2 O 2 , protected against HOCl exposure, and the oxyR2 constitutive mutant is more resistant than the wild-type strain. The genes involved in this oxyR-dependent resistance have not yet been identified, but they differ from those primarily involved in resistance to H 2 O 2 , including katG, ahp, and dps. Pretreatment with HOCl conferred resistance to H 2 O 2 in an OxyR-independent manner, suggesting a specific adaptive response to HOCl. fur mutants, which have an intracellular iron overload, were more sensitive to HOCl, supporting the generation of hydroxyl radicals upon HOCl exposure via a Fenton-type reaction. Mutations in recombinational repair genes (recA or recB) increased sensitivity to HOCl, indicative of DNA strand breaks. Sensitivity was visible in the wild type only at concentrations above 0.6 mg/liter, but it was observed at much lower concentrations in dps recA mutants.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Low concentrations selectively and rapidly inhibit cell division (42). There is some evidence that HOCl can attack DNA (55). A few reports have shown that chloramine, which can be generated in vivo by HOCl (10,49), causes DNA damage (10,44,45,51), and genotoxicity of free chlorine and chloramines in drinking water was detected with amphibians (27).…”

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confidence: 99%

Hypochlorous acid stress in Escherichia coli: resistance, DNA damage, and comparison with hydrogen peroxide stress

1996

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“…Therefore, health hazards could result from chronic exposure to these free disinfectant residues. Chlorine, the most commonly used disinfectant, has in fact been found to be carcinogenic [Soffritti et al, 1997], and sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) [Wlodkowski et al, 1975;Ishidate et al, 1988;Gauthier et al, 1989] and hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) [Ishidate, 1988;Muller and Janz, 1993;Rueff et al, 1993] have displayed mutagenic activity in both in vitro and in vivo short-term tests.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Genotoxicity of drinking water disinfectants in plant bioassays

Monarca

Feretti

Zani

et al. 2005

Environ and Mol Mutagen

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The genotoxicity of two widely used drinking water disinfectants, sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and chlorine dioxide (ClO2), and a new disinfectant, peracetic acid (PAA, CH3‐CO‐COOH), was evaluated in three short‐term plant tests: (1) induction of anaphase chromosome aberrations in the root cells of Allium cepa, (2) micronucleus induction in the root cells of Vicia faba, and (3) micronucleus induction in Tradescantia pollen cells. The study was carried out in the laboratory by directly exposing the plants to several concentrations of the disinfectants in redistilled water at unadjusted (acid) and adjusted (neutral) pHs. Both 0.1 and 0.2 mg/l NaClO induced chromosome aberrations in the Allium cepa test at acid pH, but concentrations up to 0.5 mg/l of all the disinfectants were negative at neutral pH. Concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 mg/l NaClO, ClO2, and PAA induced micronuclei in Vicia faba at acid pH, while 1–2 mg/l NaClO and ClO2 and 0.5–2 mg/l PAA gave positive responses at neutral pH. Most of concentrations of ClO2 produced positive responses in the Tradescantia micronucleus test. In general, the highest levels of genotoxicity were observed under acid conditions; at acid pH, significant effects were induced by low concentrations of ClO2 and PAA. Since the test concentrations of disinfectants are typical of those encountered in the biocidal treatment of tap water and similar concentrations are consumed daily by a large number of people, the genotoxicity of these compounds may constitute a significant public health concern. Environ. Mol. Mutagen., 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

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“…When diluted in water, the hypochlorite salts used [NaOCl, Ca(OCl) 2 , LiOCl, and KOCl] lead to formation of HOCl, whose concentration is correlated with bactericidal activity (27). Bacterial killing by HOCl may be due at least in part to lethal DNA damage (13,42). However, HOCl itself is so reactive that it is unlikely to penetrate cells and reach the DNA; rather, it seems that the bactericidal activity is due to formation of secondary products, as hypochlorous acid reacts avidly with a wide variety of subcellular compounds (membranes, proteins, etc.)…”

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Effects of Rice Seed Surface Sterilization with Hypochlorite on Inoculated Burkholderia vietnamiensis

Miché

Balandreau

2001

Appl Environ Microbiol

116

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When a combination of hydrogen peroxide and hypochlorite was used to surface sterilize rice seeds, a 10 2 -to 10 4 -fold decrease in CFU was observed during the first 15 h after inoculation of the rice rhizosphere organism Burkholderia vietnamiensis TVV75. This artifact could not be eliminated simply by rinsing the seeds, even thoroughly, with sterile distilled water. When growth resumed, a significant increase in the frequency of rifampin-and nalidixic acid-resistant mutants in the population was observed compared to the control without seeds. This phenomenon was a specific effect of hypochlorite; it was not observed with hydrogen peroxide alone. It was also not observed when the effect of hypochlorite was counteracted by sodium thiosulfate. We hypothesized that the hypochlorite used for disinfection reacted with the rice seed surface, forming a chlorine cover which was not removed by rinsing and generated mutagenic chloramines. We studied a set of rifampin-and nalidixic acid-resistant mutants obtained after seed surface sterilization. The corresponding rpoB and gyrA genes were amplified and sequenced to characterize the induced mutations. The mutations in five of seven nalidixic acid-resistant mutants and all of the rifampin-resistant mutants studied were found to correspond to single amino acid substitutions. Hypochlorite surface sterilization can thus be a source of artifacts when the initial bacterial colonization of a plant is studied.The use of hypochlorite salts for disinfection dates back to the mid-18th century. Since that time, chlorination has been the most widely used bactericidal treatment for conventional disinfection of municipal drinking water for prevention of epidemic diseases such as cholera and typhoid, and it is still the most widely used method for disinfecting water (18). Hypochlorite is also routinely used as a sanitizer for domestic uses, as well as in food-processing plants to remove surface contaminants which can alter food quality or lead to food-borne diseases (2,3,23,29).Hypochlorite is known to be a very effective to killer of bacteria; even micromolar concentrations are enough to reduce bacterial populations significantly (27). However, little is known about the exact mechanisms of bacterial killing by this sanitizer. When diluted in water, the hypochlorite salts used [NaOCl, Ca(OCl) 2 , LiOCl, and KOCl] lead to formation of HOCl, whose concentration is correlated with bactericidal activity (27). Bacterial killing by HOCl may be due at least in part to lethal DNA damage (13, 42). However, HOCl itself is so reactive that it is unlikely to penetrate cells and reach the DNA; rather, it seems that the bactericidal activity is due to formation of secondary products, as hypochlorous acid reacts avidly with a wide variety of subcellular compounds (membranes, proteins, etc.) (10, 18). In particular, HOCl reacts with NH 4 ϩ and organic amines to form highly toxic chloramines, which also are strong oxidizing and chlorinating compounds and could be the actual killing agents. These chloramin...

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Mutagenicity of sodium hypochlorite for Salmonella typhimurium

Cited by 61 publications

References 5 publications

Hypochlorous acid stress in Escherichia coli: resistance, DNA damage, and comparison with hydrogen peroxide stress

Hypochlorous acid stress in Escherichia coli: resistance, DNA damage, and comparison with hydrogen peroxide stress

Genotoxicity of drinking water disinfectants in plant bioassays

Effects of Rice Seed Surface Sterilization with Hypochlorite on Inoculated Burkholderia vietnamiensis

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