Mycotoxins in Pistachios (Pistacia vera L.): Methods for Determination, Occurrence, Decontamination

Abstract

The consumption of pistachios (Pistacia vera L.) has been increasing, given their important benefit to human health. In addition to being an excellent nutritional source, they have been associated with chemical hazards, such as mycotoxins, resulting in fungal contamination and its secondary metabolism. Aflatoxins (AFs) are the most common mycotoxins in pistachio and the most toxic to humans, with hepatotoxic effects. More mycotoxins such as ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FBs), zearalenone (ZEA) and trichothecenes (T2, HT2 and DON) and emerging mycotoxins have been involved in nuts. Because of the low levels of concentration and the complexity of the matrix, the determination techniques must be very sensitive. The present paper carries out an extensive review of the state of the art of the determination of mycotoxins in pistachios, concerning the trends in analytical methodologies for their determination and the levels detected as a result of its contamination. Screening methods based on immunoassays are useful due to their simplicity and rapid response. Liquid chromatography (LC) is the gold standard with new improvements to enhance accuracy, precision and sensitivity and a lower detection limit. The reduction of Aspergillus’ and aflatoxins’ contamination is important to minimize the public health risks. While prevention, mostly in pre-harvest, is the most effective and preferable measure to avoid mycotoxin contamination, there is an increased number of decontamination processes which will also be addressed in this review.

Analysis of RIOK2 Functions in Mediating the Toxic Effects of Deoxynivalenol in Porcine Intestinal Epithelial Cells

“…Thus, many physical and chemical strategies for DON decontamination in feed have been developed. However, few meet the requirements for practical applications due to efficiency, safety, or cost [ 23 , 24 , 25 ]. Nowadays, biological control has gradually attracted scientists’ attention as a novel promising method [ 26 ].…”

Health risk assessment of the concentration of heavy metals in Pistacia species: a global systematic review

“…Globally, the total consumption of P. vera reached about 761.71 million tons in 2020, reflecting a growth of approximately 198 million tons over the course of five years. Within the USA, per capita P. vera consumption experienced a significant rise from 0.095 kg in 2015 to 0.245 kg in 2020 (Soares Mateus et al, 2021). P. vera has been grown for many years in semi-arid zones, and it is considered a desert-tolerant plant owing to its ability to survive under extreme water stress conditions (Noguera-Artiaga et al, 2019).…”

“…Within the USA, per capita P . vera consumption experienced a significant rise from 0.095 kg in 2015 to 0.245 kg in 2020 (Soares Mateus et al. , 2021).…”

Impact of Cold Atmospheric Plasma (CAP) Treatments on the Oxidation of Pistachio Kernel Lipids

“…The contamination by aflatoxin-producing fungi represents a serious threat to the safety of this valuable commodity, especially during the postharvest storage of nuts, eventually causing economic losses to the producing countries. Different strategies (physical, chemical, and biological) have been suggested to overcome the problem [3,4], but these treatments have been proved to be not completely suitable for different reasons (reliability, sensorial acceptability of the final product, production of toxic residues, costs). This has driven the researchers' efforts to the development of new methods to prevent mold growth and to destroy mycotoxins.…”

“…Column heads are: C = control (untreated samples), O 3 = samples treated using 10% DC (ozone level 300 ppm); O 3 (+) = samples treated using 100% DC (ozone level 800 ppm). Values in a row with different letters are significantly different (Tukey test, p < 0.05) 3. Kovats Retention Index.…”