Nāga

Abstract

Nāga s are snake‐like spirits associated with water and abundance. Although they originate in India they spread to Southeast Asia and East Asia in various forms. There is strong evidence suggesting that these spirits were worshipped independently by localized cults across India, but, over time, most of these cults were co‐opted by other organized religions, most notably Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. Appearing as multi‐headed cobras or as humans with snake hoods above their heads, nāga s are visible in the art of many traditions. Most were associated with a specific pond, tank, river, or other body of water and from these locations they were believed to exert influence over the abundance or scarcity of local water. In literature the nāga s are typically portrayed positively, but they could occasionally be cruel. Several religious communities claimed control over these deities and thereby claimed control over local water. These claims may also be linked to changes in irrigation and water control.